Female and votive statuettes in both sacred and residential Roman settings

Votive bronze statuette of a young woman with offerings of flowers and a pomegranate, symbol of fertility because of its innumerable seeds, photographed by my good friend Allan Gluck at the Dumbarton Oaks Museum in Washington D.C. Statuettes such as this one were often deposited in temples to pray continually on behalf of the devout donor although sometimes they were simply displayed in the home to reflect the homeowner's erudition and piety. The sculpture is a 1st century BCE - 2nd century CE Roman copy of a Greek original of the 6th-5th century BCE.

Bronze votive statuette, Roman, 1st century BCE - 1st century CE photographed by Allan Gluck at the Dumbarton Oaks Museum in Washington, D.C.

According to Bard:

"Votive statuettes of young women with offerings were common in Roman excavations of temples from the 1st century BCE to the 1st century CE. These statuettes were often made of terracotta or bronze, and they were typically found in sanctuaries dedicated to fertility goddesses such as Juno, Venus, and Diana. The statuettes were often depicted holding offerings such as fruit, flowers, or animals, and they were sometimes inscribed with prayers or thanks for blessings received.

"Archaeologists have found a large number of these statuettes in various excavations of Roman temples and sanctuaries. For example, at the sanctuary of Mater Matuta in Velletri, Italy, archaeologists have unearthed over 1,000 votive statuettes of young women. These statuettes are dated to the 4th to 1st centuries BCE, and they are believed to have been dedicated by women who were seeking help with fertility or childbirth.

"Votive statuettes of young women with offerings were also found in large numbers at the Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia in Praeneste, Italy. These statuettes were dated to the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE, and they were dedicated by both men and women seeking help with a variety of issues, including fertility, health, and success in business or love.

"The presence of these statuettes in Roman temples and sanctuaries suggests that they played an important role in ancient Roman religious practices. They were seen as a way to communicate with the gods and goddesses and to seek their help with a variety of personal needs."

I also asked Bard about discoveries of these types of votive statuettes in Pompeii and Bard pointed out that quite a number have been found in private residences but not as many as in temple settings.:

[These statuettes]..."were typically found in shrines or lararia, which are household shrines dedicated to the Lares, the protective spirits of the home. The statuettes were often depicted holding offerings such as fruit, flowers, or animals, and they were sometimes inscribed with prayers or thanks for blessings received.

"Archaeologists have found a large number of these statuettes in various excavations of Roman residences in Pompeii. For example, at the Villa of the Mysteries in Pompeii, archaeologists have unearthed over 20 votive statuettes of young women. These statuettes are dated to the 1st century CE, and they are believed to have been dedicated by the residents of the villa as a way to thank the gods and goddesses for their protection and blessings.

"Votive statuettes of young women with offerings have also been found in large numbers at the House of the Surgeon in Pompeii. These statuettes are dated to the 1st century CE, and they are believed to have been dedicated by the residents of the house as a way to pray for good health and healing.

"Votive statuettes of young women with offerings were also found in large numbers in the House of the Vettii, another well-preserved residence in Pompeii. These statuettes were dated to the 1st century CE, and they were dedicated by the Vettii family as a way to express their gratitude for the success of their business. The statuettes were found in a household shrine located in the atrium of the house."

Ducks as symbols of love and fertility in ancient Rome

 Another beautiful ancient Roman artifact from the 3rd century CE photographed by my good friend Allan Gluck at the Dumbarton Oaks Museum, a necklace of golden ducks. According to Bard, ducks were particularly symbolic to the ancient Romans:

Third century CE Roman necklace depicting ducks photographed at the Dumbarton Oaks Museum in Washington D.C. by Allan Gluck

Third century CE Roman necklace depicting ducks photographed at the Dumbarton Oaks Museum in Washington D.C. by Allan Gluck

"Ducks had a symbolic meaning for the ancient Romans of the Third Century CE. Ducks were often associated with fertility, abundance, and domesticity. They were also seen as symbols of good luck and prosperity.

"In some Roman myths, ducks were said to be the sacred animals of the goddess Venus, who was associated with love, beauty, and pleasure. Ducks were also sometimes depicted in Roman art as companions of the gods Jupiter and Mars.

"In addition to their mythological significance, ducks were also a common source of food for the ancient Romans. They were often kept as domesticated animals on farms and were also hunted for their meat.

"Overall, ducks were seen as positive symbols in Roman culture and were associated with good fortune, abundance, and prosperity.

"Here are some specific examples of how ducks were used symbolically in Roman art and literature:

"In Roman mosaics, ducks are often depicted swimming in ponds or lakes. This is thought to symbolize fertility and abundance.

In Roman poetry, ducks are sometimes used as metaphors for love and beauty. For example, the poet Ovid describes a woman's beauty by comparing her to a swan.

"In Roman mythology, ducks are said to be the sacred animals of the goddess Venus. This is because ducks are often seen as symbols of love and fertility."

One of my Facebook followers pointed out that the granolatin and the lines of animals together are known Etruscan techniques and asked me if it could have been produced by an Etruscan artisan even though it was crafted in the 3rd century CE. So I asked Bard if that was a possibility. Bard replied with:

"Although the Etruscan civilization declined significantly in the 3rd century CE, there is evidence to suggest that some Etruscan artisans continued to practice their trade. While the Etruscans were gradually assimilated into Roman culture, their artistic traditions persisted to some extent.

"One indication of this continued Etruscan artistic activity is the continued production of bucchero pottery, a distinctive black ware that was a hallmark of Etruscan craftsmanship. Bucchero production continued in the 3rd century CE, albeit in smaller quantities and with less refinement compared to its earlier heyday.

"Additionally, there is evidence of Etruscan artisans working in other mediums, such as metalworking and sculpture. For instance, a bronze Etruscan chariot found at Monteleone di Spoleto, dated to the 2nd century CE, demonstrates the continued skill of Etruscan metalworkers. Similarly, terracotta sculptures from the 3rd century CE exhibit Etruscan stylistic elements, suggesting that Etruscan sculptors continued to contribute to the artistic landscape of central Italy.

"While the Etruscan civilization was no longer a dominant political force in the 3rd century CE, its artistic legacy endured through the continued work of Etruscan artisans. Their craftsmanship, though diminished in scale and refinement, preserved a unique cultural identity that persisted even in the shadow of the Roman Empire."

So, it looks like the necklace could very well have been the product of the few remaining Etruscan artisans still practicing their craft as late as the 3rd century CE.

The effect of Roman colonization on mercantilism in Pompeii

I have mentioned the "Rhodian" peristyle in previous posts. For those of you who may have wondered what makes a peristyle classified as a Rhodian peristyle, it is the fact that one side of the peristyle is higher than the other sides, in the case of the House of the Silver Wedding, the higher side is on the north. The House of the Faun contains a Rhodian peristyle as well. I asked Bard to compare the two peristyles. Of course Bard pointed out the size difference between the two structures (although both structures are considered "monumental", the House of the Silver Wedding is around half the size (1650 sq. meters) of the House of the Faun (3,000 sq. meters) and this difference is translated to the Rhodian peristyles in each), it also pointed out that the columns of the peristyle of the House of the Silver Wedding are Doric, while the ones in the House of the Faun are Ionic. Although the House of the Faun does have a peristyle enclosed by Ionic columns, it also has a second peristyle enclosed by Doric columns as well. Another similarity to the decor of the House of the Faun is the use of Corinthian columns in the tetrastyle atriums of both houses. They also had shops flanking the entrances around 80 BCE that were removed in subsequent renovations.

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 1895 Watercolor by Luigi Bazzani Room 1, atrium

This aspect of both homes made me curious whether the revenue from shops was needed after the "colonization" by Rome but were later removed as the residents became wealthier and more wished to eliminate evidence of overt relationships with business activities frowned on by the Roman aristocracy. So, I asked Bard about this:

Mary: Both the House of the Silver Wedding and the House of the Faun originally had shops flanking their entrances that were subsequently removed in the 1st century CE. Was this feature a result of attempts to recover from economic losses due to the Roman "colonization" after 80 BCE?

Bard: "Some historians have argued that the removal of the shops was a way for the homeowners to increase the privacy of their homes. Others have suggested that it was a way to create a more formal and elegant entranceway. It is also possible that the homeowners simply wanted to create more space for their own use.

It is worth noting that the removal of the shops from these two houses is not unique. There are a number of other houses in Pompeii where the shops flanking the entrances were also removed in the 1st century CE. This suggests that there may have been a broader trend towards removing shops from private homes during this period. [I noticed this change was also made to the House of the Prince of Naples when I studied it a few years ago.]

"It is possible that the Roman "colonization" after 80 BCE led to economic hardship for some Pompeians. This could have made it difficult for homeowners to maintain their shops, or it could have made them less profitable. As a result, some homeowners may have decided to remove their shops and use the space for other purposes.

'However, it is also possible that the removal of the shops from these two houses was unrelated to the Roman "colonization." It is possible that the homeowners simply wanted to make changes to their homes for their own personal reasons.

"Ultimately, more research is needed to determine the exact reasons why the shops flanking the entrances of the House of the Silver Wedding and the House of the Faun were removed in the 1st century CE.

"Here are some additional factors that may have contributed to the removal of the shops:

"Changes in fashion: The popularity of shops flanking the entrances of private homes may have declined in the 1st century CE.

"New building regulations: The Roman government may have introduced new building regulations that prohibited shops from being located near the entrances of private homes.

"Economic changes: The Roman economy may have changed in such a way that made it less profitable for homeowners to operate shops.

Mary: So, the subsequent removal of the shops flanking the entrances of wealthier homes was not a result of the residents advancing in social status and adopting the Roman attitude that overt business dealings were frowned upon by Roman aristocracy?

Bard: "It is possible that the removal of the shops from the House of the Silver Wedding and the House of the Faun was a result of the residents advancing in social status and adopting the Roman attitude that overt business dealings were frowned upon by Roman aristocracy. However, there is no definitive evidence to support this claim.

"Some historians have argued that the removal of the shops was a way for the homeowners to distance themselves from their commercial activities and to project a more elite image. Others have suggested that it was a way to comply with new social norms that discouraged overt displays of wealth.

"It is worth noting that there is evidence that some wealthy Romans continued to operate businesses from their homes in the 1st century CE. For example, the House of the Vettii, a very wealthy domus in Pompeii, had a shop selling wine and oil located next to its entrance.

"It is possible that the homeowners of the House of the Silver Wedding and the House of the Faun decided to remove their shops for a combination of reasons, including social status, changing fashion, and new building regulations.

"Ultimately, more research is needed to determine the exact reasons why the shops flanking the entrances of these two houses were removed in the 1st century CE".

Images: Color lithographs of paintings done by various late-19th and early 20th century Italian artists soon after excavation as well as photographs taken in the late 19th century and those by Stanley Jashemski, husband of archaeologist Wilhemina Jashemski, back in the 1960s (considered PD in the US because they are "copies" of 2-dimensional artwork in the public domain because of age of the original creators).  

Geremia Discanno has left us a number of quality paintings of now mostly-vanished wall decorations. Although the lithograph process normally produces over-saturated colors, we can at least get an idea of the kaleidoscope of pigments selected by the last residents of the property. I wrote Discanno's Wikipedia biography in collaboration with Italian biographer, Pasquale Roberto Vinella (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geremia_Discanno). I also wrote Luigi Bazzani's Wikipedia biography (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi_Bazzani). Both biographies feature image galleries of their works.

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 1898 Room 23, peristyle watercolor by Luigi Bazzani showing portions of the cornice and frieze with two columns of the peristyle

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii circa 1924 painting by Pierre Gusman Room 23, looking towards west side and north-west corner

House of the Silver Wedding Room 23, peristyle, 1898 watercolour by Luigi Bazzani of black painted panels from walls of peristyle

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 1892 Looking north from south peristyle towards the west and north side

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii Room 23 looking north across the peristyle 1900 photograph

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii Room 21, north wall in Corinthian oecus with remains of one of the four columns holding the vaulted ceiling 1895 watercolor by Luigi Bazzani

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 25 th September 1897 Room 21, watercolor copy of painting on a wall in Corinthian oecus

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 1896 photograph showing excavation

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii Room 20, detail of south wall of bedroom or small dining room by De Simone (Niccolini Book 4)

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 24 th September 1897 Room 19, painting of detail from west wall of exedra

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 1898. Room 19, west wall of exedra watercolor by Luigi Bazzani

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii Room 19, detail from west wall of exedra Photo by Stanley Jashemski (PD in US)

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii Room 19, west wall of exedra Photo by Stanley Jashemski (PD in US)

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 1896 Room 19, detail of painted wall in exedra (Niccolini Book 4)

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii Room 18, 1896 detail of wall in cubiculum-dining room by De Simone (Niccolini Book 4)

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 1895 Watercolor by Luigi Bazzani of an architectural fresco in the cubiculum, room 18

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii Room 17, 1896 detail of painted decoration of a wall with black background (Niccolini Book4)

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 1898 Room 13, watercolor by Luigi Bazzani showing painted walls of latrines

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 1898 Watercolor by Luigi Bazzani, showing west wall of PiP Room 9, described as “Ambiente 2”

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 1893 Room 9, remains of wall painting on east wall

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 1898 Watercolor by Luigi Bazzani, showing detail of painted decoration on plinth of walls in tablinum

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 1898 Watercolor by Luigi Bazzani, decoration from Cubiculum “a”, on right and peristyle on the left

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 1898 Room 4, watercolor by Luigi Bazzani depicting painted portrait medallion roundel from north wall showing two figures

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 1898 Watercolor by Luigi Bazzani, showing twisted plant candelabra

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii Room 19, detail from east wall of exedra Photo by Stanley A. Jashemski (PD in US)

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 1892 Looking north across atrium

The House of the Silver Wedding's original configuration

Originally, the House of the Silver Wedding was only a single-story home constructed during Pompeii's Tufa Period between 200 and 80 BCE. The period is so named because during this period, Pompeii's city walls were rebuilt using tufa, a type of volcanic rock. This was done in response to the Second Punic War, in which Hannibal's invasion threatened many cities. It is thought the monumental home was built after older and presumably smaller houses dating back to about 300 BCE were demolished and the terracing of the south-facing slope was completed

Wolfgang Ehrhardt in his text "Hauser in Pompeji Band 12: Casa de Nozze d'argento", in contrast with August Mau, postulates the first major reconstruction of the house to have occurred about 80 BCE, based on an analysis of the tuff capitals of the atrium columns being dated to the last quarter of the second century. Before this renovation, the rooms opening off of the atrium had doors over four meters high and the tablinum was still completely open to both the atrium and the peristyle. The large garden, referred to as Hortus 5, was closely connected to the atrium wing by means of three doors.

In his 1899 text, "Pompeii: its life and art," August Mau observed that the compluvium (opening in the roof of the atrium) was so large, it must have provided brilliant light throughout the space, so much so, that hanging curtains may have been needed during the summer to mitigate the heat. Mau points out excavators found on the side of each column, facing the corner of the atrium, bronze rings through which a cord might have been passed to use in drawing the curtains back and forth. The original simple terrazzo floors have actually been preserved in some rooms around the atrium and the peristyle.

The first major renovation, however, demolished the structure's First Style decorations, replacing them with Second Style decor, and lowered the room heights in the atrium wing to create an upper floor, although the fauces and tablinum retained their original ceiling height, perhaps to preserve a prestigious effect on visitors. According to Mau there was also no second story over any of the rooms around the peristyle.

Images: More of Professor Eber's photographs of The House of the Silver Wedding taken in 2023.

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 Looking south-east from north-west corner of Rhodian peristyle Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 PiP Room 25, detail of restored triclinium in large garden area to east of house Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 PiP Room 25, looking north across triclinium, in center, and pool, on right Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 PiP Room 23, peristyle. Looking west in north-west corner Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 Looking south along east porch Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 PiP Room 21, Corinthian oecus, looking west onto south portico Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 PiP Room 21, Corinthian oecus, looking west Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 PiP Room 21, Corinthian oecus, detail of painted decoration on base of pillar Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 PiP Room 21, Corinthian oecus, east wall Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber

Houses of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 PiP Room 21, Corinthian oecus, detail Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 PiP Room 21, Corinthian oecus, north wall at east end Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 PiP Room 21, Corinthian oecus, north-east corner Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 Room 21, Corinthian oecus, detail from north wall Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 PiP Room 21, Corinthian oecus, looking west along north wall Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 PiP Room 21, Corinthian oecus, north and east walls Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 PiP Room 21, Corinthian oecus, looking east from portico Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 PiP Room 20, looking south from doorway Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 South portico of peristyle, with doorway to room 20, on left Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber.

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 PiP Room 19, looking north across mosaic threshold of exedra to peristyle Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 Doorway to PiP room 19 and east wall, on left, and room 18, on right Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 PiP Room 18, east wall Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 PiP Room 18, detail of mosaic doorway threshold, on left, and mosaic flooring, on right Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 Doorway to PiP room 18, bedroom or small dining room, on right Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber.

House of the Silver Wedding Pompeii 2023 PiP Room 23, looking south along west porch Photo courtesy of Johannes Eber