Gladiators in 4th and 5th century Roman art

I found this small ivory figurine of a warrior or deity, possibly Ares (or a gladiator?), that my good friend Allan Gluck photographed at the Dumbarton Oaks Museum in Washington D.C. quite interesting! The museum curators observe, "The mantle informally slung over the muscular youth’s left arm seems to emphasize his nudity, even though the helmet suggests preparedness for battle. The figurine thus takes part in the classical tradition of the heroic nude. For the ancient Greeks, it was not just the face, but the strength and fine proportions of the whole body that conveyed the virtue of the person depicted. Gods, rulers, and athletes were all frequently depicted nude.

Roman ivory warrior figurine, late 4th - early 5th century CE
photographed at the Dumbarton Oaks Museum,
courtesy of Allan Gluck 

"We cannot be sure of the identity of the figure. The helmet suggests that he may be Ares, the Greek god of war, whom the Romans identified with Mars, their god of war, but he could equally be a mortal warrior. In either case, his relaxed pose and upward glance suggest that he is away from the battle, and taken up in contemplation."

The mantle appears to me to be wrapped around the left arm, though, rather than informally slung. In fact, it reminds me of a gladiator's protective arm wrapping.

Since the figurine is carved from ivory, a luxury material, I also wondered if it served as a protective amulet. So I had a few questions for Bard:

Mary: "Was ivory a common medium for amulets in the fourth and fifth centuries CE in Roman art?"

Bard:

"Yes, ivory was indeed a common and highly valued medium for amulets in the fourth and fifth centuries CE in Roman art. Its combination of beauty, durability, and symbolic associations made it a popular choice for creating protective charms and lucky tokens.

Here's a closer look at the reasons behind ivory's prevalence in amulet making during this period:

Symbolic Value:

Rarity and Value: Ivory's rarity, particularly in Europe, imbued it with a sense of luxury and preciousness. This association with value naturally translated to the belief in its protective power, as valuable objects were thought to ward off misfortune and attract good luck.

Purity and Whiteness: The natural white color of ivory was often linked to purity and righteousness in Roman culture. This connection made it an ideal material for amulets associated with spiritual protection and divine favor.

Durability and Carvability: Ivory's exceptional hardness and fine grain made it perfect for carving intricate details and delicate shapes. This allowed artisans to create detailed representations of deities, animals, and symbols, further enhancing the amulets' symbolic power.

Examples of Ivory Amulets:

Figurines: Depictions of gods, goddesses, mythical creatures, and even everyday objects like animals and plants were commonly carved from ivory and worn as amulets. These figurines served as visual reminders of the protective deities or wished-for outcomes associated with them.

Plaques and Pendants: Flat pieces of ivory were often engraved with scenes, symbols, or inscriptions related to protection, health, or good fortune. These plaques and pendants were then worn around the neck or attached to clothing.

Rings and Bracelets: Carved ivory rings and bracelets were popular forms of personal adornment that also doubled as amulets. These pieces often featured auspicious symbols or protective deities, offering a combination of style and spiritual benefit.

Ivory's unique combination of symbolic meaning, practical advantages, and aesthetic appeal made it a highly sought-after material for amulets in the fourth and fifth centuries CE in Roman art. While other materials were also used, ivory's status as a symbol of luxury, purity, and durability cemented its place as a preferred choice for protective charms and lucky tokens worn by people of all classes in Roman society."

I followed up with: "Were gladiators still depicted in 4th and 5th century Roman art?"

Bard:

"The presence of gladiators in 4th and 5th century Roman art is a complex issue with some interesting nuances:

Yes, gladiators were still depicted in some Roman art of this period, but the context and frequency of their portrayal changed significantly.

Here's a breakdown:

Decline of Gladiatorial Games: By the 4th century, the popularity of gladiatorial games had already begun to decline due to various factors like Christian opposition, rising costs, and changing social sensibilities.

Shifting Artistic Focus: With the diminished importance of games, gladiators started appearing less frequently in public art forms like monumental sculpture and large, celebratory mosaics.

Persistence in Smaller Art: However, depictions of gladiators persisted in smaller art forms like:

Sarcophagi: Gladiatorial scenes occasionally adorned the tombs of individuals who may have had personal connections to the arena.

Ceramics: Figurines and paintings on pottery sometimes featured gladiators, possibly reflecting continued popular interest in the spectacle.

Private Art: Gladiatorial themes might have appeared in private art collections owned by families who still valued the traditional martial ideals associated with the games.

Change in Representation: The way gladiators were portrayed also shifted. They became less prominent figures and often appeared alongside other imagery, suggesting a diminishing cultural significance.

Important Example:

The renowned Gladiator Mosaic from the 4th century, despite its name, only depicts one gladiatorial scene among several hunting and animal fights. This highlights the changing focus of the artwork.

In conclusion: While not completely absent, gladiators became less central and more symbolic in 4th and 5th century Roman art, reflecting the declining relevance of gladiatorial games in the evolving social and cultural landscape of the late Roman Empire."

Then I asked more specifically: "Were gladiators depicted as almost nude in 4th and 5th century Roman art?"

Bard:

"...the depiction of gladiatorial attire in 4th and 5th century Roman art is an interesting detail that reflects the changing perception of gladiatorial games and the Roman society in that era.

While earlier Roman art, particularly from the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, often portrayed gladiators in minimal clothing, primarily loincloths and leg wraps, 4th and 5th century art generally depicted them with more covering. This shift can be attributed to several factors:

Christian Influence: The growing influence of Christianity in the Roman Empire during this period led to a more conservative attitude towards nudity. Gladiatorial combat, often brutal and bloody, was increasingly seen as incompatible with Christian values.

Changing Social Mores: Roman society itself was undergoing a transformation in the later Empire, with a greater emphasis on modesty and decorum. This is reflected in the art of the time, which generally featured more clothed figures compared to earlier periods.

Symbolic Representation: Gladiators in 4th and 5th century art were often depicted as symbolic figures, representing virtues like courage and strength. Their attire, therefore, became less focused on practical considerations for combat and more on conveying these symbolic meanings.

Here are some examples of how gladiatorial attire changed in 4th and 5th century Roman art:

The Gladiator Mosaic from Piazza Armerina, Sicily, dating to the 4th century, depicts gladiators wearing tunics and leggings, a far cry from the scantily clad warriors of earlier eras.

Sarcophagi from this period often show gladiators in full armor, including helmets, breastplates, and greaves. This heavier attire emphasizes their role as warriors and protectors, rather than simply scantily clad fighters.

However, it's important to note that some exceptions exist. Certain artistic styles or specific scenes might still depict gladiators in more revealing attire, particularly when emphasizing the physicality and athleticism associated with gladiatorial combat.

Overall, the depiction of gladiatorial attire in 4th and 5th century Roman art reflects the changing cultural and social landscape of the late Roman Empire. While gladiators were still present in artistic representations, their portrayal became more symbolic and less focused on the physical aspects of combat, leading to a general trend towards more covered attire."

Mosaic at the National Archaeological Museum in Madrid showing a retiarius (net-fighter) named Kalendio fighting a secutor named Astyanax. In the bottom image, the secutor is covered in the retiarius's net, but doesn't seem to be hindered. In the upper image, apparently the conclusion of the skirmish, Kalendio is on the ground, wounded, and raises his dagger to surrender. The arena employees await his fate from the editor, not pictured. The inscription above reads ASTYANAX VICIT, as well as name of Kalendio followed by the symbol ∅ (null), implying that he was killed by Astyanax. 4th century CE Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor Amcaja. 

Then I asked "Were gladiator figurines in ivory used as amulets in 4th and 5th century Roman art?"

Bard:

The use of gladiator figurines in ivory as amulets during the 4th and 5th centuries in Roman art is an intriguing topic with limited, but suggestive evidence. While conclusive proof of their widespread use as amulets is elusive, here's what we know:

Evidence for Figurines:

Archaeological Finds: Scattered finds of small ivory figurines depicting gladiators have been unearthed in various parts of the Roman Empire, dating to the 4th and 5th centuries. These figurines often represent individual gladiators in different poses and armor, suggesting familiarity with the games and their various combat styles.

Artistic Similarities: The style and craftsmanship of these figurines often resemble other known amulets and personal ornaments from the period, featuring smooth carving, detailed features, and sometimes even suspension holes.

Possible Use as Amulets:

Protective Function: Gladiators were traditionally associated with virtues like courage, strength, and resilience. This association, coupled with the symbolic power of ivory as a valuable and durable material, might have led to the creation and use of gladiator figurines as amulets for protection and good fortune.

Connection to the Games: For individuals passionate about gladiatorial games, owning a miniature representation of a gladiator could have served as a personal talisman or a reminder of their favorite fighters.

Limited Evidence: However, it's important to note that concrete evidence explicitly linking these figurines to amuletic use is scarce. No written records or inscriptions directly associate them with protection or specific rituals. Additionally, the context of their archaeological finds doesn't always provide definitive clues about their intended purpose.

Alternative Interpretations:

Decorative Objects: Some scholars suggest that these figurines might have been primarily decorative, functioning as collectibles or small-scale luxury items rather than having any specific protective function.

Gaming Pieces: The possibility of using them as playing pieces in board games related to gladiatorial themes has also been proposed.

Conclusion:

While the use of gladiator figurines in ivory as amulets in 4th and 5th century Roman art remains somewhat unclear, the available evidence suggests a plausible connection. Their resemblance to known amulets, association with gladiatorial virtues, and valuable material all point towards a potential protective or symbolic function. However, without more definitive proof, their exact role and how widespread their use as amulets might have been, remains open to further research and interpretation."

I must admit, the figurine is a wearing a helmet, though, while gladiators like a retiarius are depicted bare-headed in 4th century CE mosaics. So, I changed my inquiries to focus on the possible identification of the figure as Ares, the Greek god of war. Bard points out that Ares is often depicted as a younger, athletic figure, sometimes even beardless, radiating raw masculine energy and impulsiveness while

Mars is usually portrayed as a mature, dignified warrior, often bearded and clad in full armor, embodying military discipline and strategic prowess. So, even though this figurine is dated to the late 4th to early 5th century Roman empire (the museum considers it Byzantine), based on its appearance it would fit the description of Ares better than Mars if it is, in fact, a deity.

So then I asked, "Were amulets depicting Ares rather than Mars common in the 4th and 5th centuries in the eastern Roman Empire?"

Bard:

"During the 4th and 5th centuries CE in the eastern Roman Empire, depictions of Ares on amulets were indeed more common than those of Mars. This phenomenon can be attributed to a confluence of factors:

1. Continued Strength of Greek Cultural Influence:

Even after Roman political dominance, the eastern Roman Empire, encompassing regions with deep Greek roots, retained strong cultural ties to Greek language, literature, and mythology.

This meant familiarity with and preference for figures like Ares, deeply ingrained in the local cultural fabric, persisted longer than in the western empire.

2. Similarities between Ares and Mars:

Though originating from different mythologies, Ares and Mars shared significant overlaps in their domains and symbolism. Both were associated with:

Warfare and military prowess

Masculinity and physical strength

Protection of warriors and communities

Consequently, amulets featuring either god could fulfill similar protective purposes, making the choice less about theological distinctions and more about cultural familiarity and personal preference.

3. Artistic Continuity in the East:

Artistic styles and traditions in the eastern Roman Empire often displayed stronger connections to their Greek heritage compared to the western regions.

This continuity translated to artisans drawing more readily upon Greek iconography when crafting amulets, naturally leading to a higher prevalence of Ares representations.

Historical Context:

The 4th and 5th centuries also witnessed the rise of Christianity in the Roman Empire. While initially persecuted, it gradually gained prominence, leading to a decline in the worship of traditional pagan deities like Ares and Mars.

Nonetheless, within the eastern Roman context, where Greek cultural influence remained strong, Ares depictions on amulets persisted to a greater extent than Mars, particularly in earlier parts of these centuries.

Examples:

Numerous archaeological finds showcase Ares on amulets from this period, including:

Gemstones: Engraved with Ares in his characteristic helmet and armor, holding a spear or shield.

Plaques and pendants: Crafted from bronze or bone, depicting Ares in scenes like battling giants or riding his chariot.

Statuettes: Small ivory or terracotta figurines representing Ares in a standing or striding pose.

Conclusion:

While Mars amulets weren't entirely absent, the prevalence of Ares depictions on amulets in the eastern Roman Empire during the 4th and 5th centuries reflects the persistent influence of Greek mythology and artistic traditions alongside the shared war-related symbolism between both deities. Understanding these factors enriches our appreciation of the complex cultural landscape of the late Roman Empire."