Emaciated Hephaistos in ancient Greek art

I have been working on my friend Allan Gluck's images of ancient art on display at the Dumbarton Oaks Museum and he accidentally associated a description of a statuette of a seated emaciated man with Hephaistos, the god of metalworking. But, this association may have been fortuitous after all. The museum does have a statuette of a well-muscled god identified as Hephaistos and dated to the 5th century BCE but, upon checking the museum website, I found the curators identify the emaciated man as a 1st century CE Roman copy of a 2nd century BCE Greek work, claiming an inscription along the hem of the man's garment may identify him as Perdikkas, a youth who had neglected to sacrifice to Aphrodite while studying in Athens. As retribution, the vengeful goddess cursed him with a love for his own mother, which caused him to waste away. I am always curious when the identification is tentative ("may" point to Perdikkas).

Emaciated statuette of Hephaistos (?) photographed at the Dumbarton Oaks Museum in Washington D.C. by Allan Gluck, 1st century CE Roman copy of a 2nd century BCE Greek original (?)

Before I double checked the museum's website for information about the sculpture and assumed it was a piece from the 5th century BCE, I asked Bard if Hephaistos was portrayed as emaciated in 5th century BCE Greek art and it replied:

"The earliest known depictions of Hephaistos are from the 7th century BCE, and they all show him as a thin, wiry figure. One of the most famous examples is a bronze statuette from Olympia that dates to the 7th century BCE.

"Hephaistos was often depicted as an emaciated man in 5th century BCE Greek art for a number of reasons.

"In this statuette, Hephaistos is standing naked and is holding a hammer and tongs. He is very thin, and his ribs are clearly visible. His face is also gaunt, and his eyes are sunken. This is a very different image of Hephaistos from the one that we are familiar with from later Greek art, in which he is usually depicted as a muscular, well-built god.

"The reason why Hephaistos was depicted as emaciated in early Greek art is not entirely clear. Some scholars believe that it is a reflection of his divine nature, as gods were often seen as being more spiritual than physical. Others believe that it is a reflection of his association with fire and metalworking, as these activities can be very demanding on the body. Still others believe that it is simply a result of the artistic style of the time, as early Greek artists were not as interested in depicting the human form in a realistic way.

"Regardless of the reason, the image of Hephaistos as an emaciated god persisted in Greek art for centuries. It is only in the 5th century BCE that we see a shift away from this depiction, as artists begin to portray Hephaistos as a more muscular and athletic figure. This change in portrayal is likely a reflection of the changing aesthetic ideals of the time, as the Greeks became increasingly interested in depicting the human form in a more realistic way.

"However, the image of Hephaistos as an emaciated god never completely disappeared from Greek art. It continued to be used in some contexts, and it also found its way into later Western art. Even today, the image of Hephaistos as a thin, wiry figure is still familiar to many people. It is a reminder of the enduring power of the Greek myths and the rich history of Greek art."

Bard then summarized the reasons Hephaistos was depicted this way in early Greek art:

"His divine nature: As a god, Hephaistos was not subject to the same physical limitations as humans. He was therefore able to be depicted in a way that would not be possible for a mortal, such as being emaciated or having a deformity. This emaciated appearance was seen as a reflection of his divine nature and his role as the god of fire and metalworking.

"His association with fire: Fire is a force of nature that is both destructive and creative. Hephaistos, as the god of fire, was seen as embodying both of these qualities. His emaciated appearance could be seen as a reflection of the destructive power of fire.

"His association with metalworking: Metalworking is a physically demanding task that can be harmful to the body. Hephaistos, as the god of metalworking, was seen as being exposed to these dangers on a daily basis. His emaciated appearance could be seen as a reflection of the physical toll that metalworking takes on the body."

I found this last reason particularly compelling since some scholars, including M. Harper in his/her paper, "Possible toxic metal exposure of prehistoric bronze workers," points out Hephaestus's appearance and physical disability are taken by some scholars to represent peripheral neuropathy and skin cancer resulting from arsenicosis caused by arsenic exposure from metalworking. Bronze Age smiths added arsenic to copper to produce harder arsenical bronze, especially during periods of tin scarcity. Many Bronze Age smiths would have suffered from chronic arsenic poisoning as a result of their livelihood. Consequently, the mythic image of the disabled smith is widespread. As Hephaestus was an iron-age smith, not a bronze-age smith, it is thought the connection is one from ancient folk memory.

All of this informaton seemed to support the identification of the emaciated figure as Hephaistos after all. But what about the inscription? Bard observed that the inscription actually indicated a relationship to Hephaistos as well.

"Based on the inscription and its similarity to the Greek name Perdikkas, it is reasonable to conclude that the ancient statuette of an emaciated man likely depicts Hephaistos, the Greek god of fire, metalworking, and craftsmanship. The name Perdikkas is believed to be of Greek origin and is related to the Greek words for 'plain' or 'field' and 'justice' or 'judgment.' ...the name Perdikkas suggests a connection to the Greek concept of order and structure, which aligns with Hephaistos' role as a skilled artisan and craftsman.

'The emaciated appearance of the statuette further supports the identification as Hephaistos. In Greek mythology, Hephaistos was often portrayed as a thin, wiry figure due to his association with fire and metalworking, which were considered physically demanding and potentially harmful occupations. This depiction contrasted with the idealized athletic figures often seen in Greek art, reflecting Hephaistos' unique nature and his role as a god of both creation and destruction.

"While the exact meaning of the inscription remains uncertain, the similarity in spelling and the association with Greek mythology provide strong evidence to support the identification of the statuette as Hephaistos...The name "Perdikkas" was primarily used in ancient Greece and Macedonia, regions where Hephaistos was a prominent deity. This geographical association further supports the connection between the name and the god. The name "Perdikkas" was also associated with noble and powerful figures, often rulers and generals. This association with leadership and authority could be seen as aligning with Hephaistos' position as a respected and influential god in the Greek pantheon."

Another aspect of the sculpture that I feel points to Hephaistos is the portrayal of the figure in a seated pose. Because of his lameness, Hephaistos is often portrayed as seated as we see in a fresco from the House of Paccius Alexander in Pompeii. There, a seated Hephaistos displays Achilles shield to Thetis, Achilles' mother.

Fresco of Hephaistos presenting Achilles shield to his mother Thetis from the House of Paccius Alexander, Pompeii (IX 1,7) courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor Marie-Lan Nguyen.

So, what about the attribution that the sculpture is a 1st century CE Roman copy of a 2nd century BCE Greek original? The museum says the piece is said to have been found in the Aisne River, near Soissons, France. By 1844, the sculpture became part of the private collection of the Vicomte de Jessaiint (1764-1853) then was sold or inherited by a number of collectors since that time.

Did the Celts of 1st century Gaul, themselves, worship Hephaistos?

Bard:

"Yes, there are several sculptures of Hephaistos from Gaul that have been dated to the 1st century CE. Some of the most famous examples include:

"Head of Hephaistos from Amiens: This bronze statuette was found in the city of Amiens, France. It depicts Hephaistos as a bearded, middle-aged man with a hammer and tongs. The statuette is dated to the 1st century CE.

"Torso of Hephaistos from Lyon: This bronze statuette was found in the city of Lyon, France. It depicts Hephaistos as a muscular, well-built man with a hammer and tongs. The statuette is dated to the 1st century CE.

"Relief of Hephaistos from Reims: This stone relief was found in the city of Reims, France. It depicts Hephaistos as a bearded, middle-aged man forging armor in his workshop. The relief is dated to the 1st century CE.

"Statuette of Hephaistos from Autun: This bronze statuette was found in the city of Autun, France. It depicts Hephaistos as a bearded, middle-aged man with a hammer and tongs. The statuette is dated to the 1st century CE.

"These sculptures are just a few examples of the many sculptures of Hephaistos that have been found in Gaul. These sculptures show that Hephaistos was a popular god in Gaul, and they provide valuable information about the role of Hephaistos in Gaulish religion and culture.

"In addition to the sculptures, there are also a number of other artifacts from Gaul that depict Hephaistos. These artifacts include coins, pottery, and jewelry. The presence of so many images of Hephaistos in Gaul suggests that he was a very important god in the region.

"The worship of Hephaistos in Gaul continued into the Roman period. The Romans adopted Hephaistos into their pantheon, and they continued to worship him as the god of fire, metalworking, and craftsmanship. The Romans also built temples to Hephaistos in Gaul, and they continued to use his image on coins and other artifacts."

But, I wondered if the Gauls depicted Hephaistos as emaciated?

Bard:

"Sculptures of an emaciated Hephaistos are rare in Gaul. While Hephaistos was worshipped in Gaul during the Roman period, he was typically depicted as a muscular, well-built man. Emaciated depictions of Hephaistos were more common in Greek art, where they reflected his association with fire and metalworking.

"There are a few possible reasons why emaciated depictions of Hephaistos were rare in Gaul. One possibility is that the Gauls did not see Hephaistos in the same way as the Greeks. The Greeks saw Hephaistos as a god of both creation and destruction, and they often depicted him as an emaciated figure to reflect his association with the destructive power of fire. However, the Gauls may have seen Hephaistos more as a god of creation and craftsmanship, and they may not have felt the need to depict him as an emaciated figure.

"Another possibility is that the Gauls were influenced by Roman art, which typically depicted Hephaistos as a muscular, well-built man. The Romans conquered Gaul in the 1st century BCE, and their influence on Gaulish art and culture is evident in many areas. It is possible that the Gauls adopted the Roman depiction of Hephaistos as part of their own adaptation of Roman culture.

"Whatever the reasons, emaciated depictions of Hephaistos are rare in Gaul. The few examples that have been found are typically small and stylized, and they are not as common as the more muscular depictions of the god. This suggests that the Gauls did not see Hephaistos in the same way as the Greeks, and they may have been influenced by Roman art in their depictions of the god."

So, Bard considers an emaciated Hephaistos to be obviously a Greek portrayal. Perhaps that is why the piece is attributed to the Romans (as the transport mechanism to Gaul) but as a copy of a Greek original and not of Gallic origin despite its find context. As for it being a copy of a 2nd century BCE original, I am a bit skeptical. With the advent of Hellenism in the 4th century BCE, depictions of Hephaistos became much more muscular so it would seem to be a rarity if a Roman commissioned such an emaciated version of the god.

A 5th century BCE (?) Greek sculpture identified as Hephaistos photographed at the Dumbarton Oaks Museum by Allan Gluck

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Architectural differences between Etruscan-influenced Pompeii and Greek-influenced Herculaneum

 Lately, during my afternoon rest period, I've begun to watch The Great Courses lecture series "The Mysterious Etruscans" presented by Professor Steven Tuck of Miami University. I bought the course years ago but had too many projects going to watch it. As is often the case with Great Courses programs, I learned something new in the very first lecture. Dr. Tuck was describing the contentious relationship between the Etruscans who built the outpost that would become the thriving trading center known as Pompeii and the Greeks who colonized Magna Graecia, including Herculaneum.

I knew the Etruscans had joined with other Italic tribes to oppose Roman expansion into Campania but I did not realize the city of Pompeii itself was initially founded by the Etruscans. I have read about Greek influence in Pompeii and had just assumed Pompeii itself was culturally Greek before its conquest by the Romans.

So, although both cities had come under Roman control in the 4th century BCE, I became immediately curious about differences in art and architecture between structures in what was once Etruscan Pompeii compared to Greek-influenced homes in Herculaneum, so I asked Google's Bard AI about it.

Mary: Are there distinctive differences stylistically or thematically between the architecture and urban layout found at Pompeii and architecture and urban layout found at Herculaneum that reflect the cultural differences between the Etruscans who founded Pompeii and the colonial Greeks who founded Herculaneum?

Greek-influenced House of the Mosaic atrium IV,2 Herculaneum, Looking north-east across impluvium in the atrium. Photo courtesy of Michael Binns

Bard:

"Yes, there are distinctive differences stylistically or thematically between the architecture and urban layout found at Pompeii and architecture and urban layout found at Herculaneum that reflect the cultural differences between the Etruscans who founded Pompeii and the colonial Greeks who founded Herculaneum.

"Pompeii

"Etruscan Influence: Pompeii's early architecture and urban layout reflect Etruscan influences, characterized by:

Irregular and organic street patterns

Raised podiums for temples

Deep porches (pronaoi) for temples

Triangular pediments for temples

"Roman Adaptation: Under Roman rule, Pompeii's architecture and urban layout adopted Roman conventions, including:

Rectangular temple bases

Peristyle courtyards surrounding temples

Columned porches for temples

Grid-based street patterns with central plazas (agoras)

Herculaneum

"Greek Influence: Herculaneum's architecture and urban layout show strong Greek influences, evident in:

Regular and orthogonal street patterns

Temples with rectangular bases and peristyle courtyards

Use of marble and other imported materials

Greek-style theaters and public buildings

"Roman Assimilation: As Herculaneum became more Romanized, its architecture and urban layout incorporated Roman elements, such as:

Roman temples with columned porches

Roman baths and recreational facilities

Roman-style domestic architecture

"These differences reflect the distinct cultural backgrounds of Pompeii's Etruscan founders and Herculaneum's Greek colonists. The Etruscans' emphasis on practicality and local materials is evident in Pompeii's early structures, while the Greeks' focus on order, symmetry, and aesthetics is reflected in Herculaneum's architecture and urban planning.

"Despite these differences, both Pompeii and Herculaneum shared common features of Roman urbanism, such as grid-based street patterns, public spaces, and a mix of residential, commercial, and religious structures. Both cities flourished during the Roman era, serving as important commercial centers and cultural hubs in southern Italy."

Mary: Are there distinctive differences stylistically or thematically between the art found at Pompeii and art found at Herculaneum that reflect these cultural differences?

Bard:

"Yes, there are some stylistic and thematic differences between the art found at Pompeii and Herculaneum that reflect the cultural differences between the two cities.

"Pompeii, as an Etruscan city, displayed a strong Etruscan influence in its art. Etruscan art was characterized by its realism, narrative content, and use of symbolism. For example, Etruscan frescoes often depicted mythological scenes, and Etruscan sculptures were often life-size and realistic.

"Herculaneum, on the other hand, was a Greek colony, and its art reflected a strong Greek influence. Greek art was characterized by its idealism, balance, and use of geometry. For example, Greek frescoes often depicted idealized figures, and Greek sculptures were often based on mathematical principles.

"Here are some specific examples of the stylistic and thematic differences between the art of Pompeii and Herculaneum:

"Pompeian frescoes are often more crowded and chaotic than Herculanean frescoes. This is because Etruscan art was more concerned with realism and narrative content, while Greek art was more concerned with idealism and balance.

"Pompeian sculptures are often more life-size and realistic than Herculanean sculptures. This is because Etruscan art was more concerned with realism, while Greek art was more concerned with idealism.

"Pompeian mosaics are often more colorful and intricate than Herculanean mosaics. This is because Etruscan art was more ornate and decorative, while Greek art was more restrained and elegant. Here are some specific examples of the stylistic and thematic differences between the art of Pompeii and Herculaneum:

"Pompeian frescoes are often more crowded and chaotic than Herculanean frescoes. This is because Etruscan art was more concerned with realism and narrative content, while Greek art was more concerned with idealism and balance.

"Pompeian sculptures are often more life-size and realistic than Herculanean sculptures. This is because Etruscan art was more concerned with realism, while Greek art was more concerned with idealism.

"Pompeian mosaics are often more colorful and intricate than Herculanean mosaics. This is because Etruscan art was more ornate and decorative, while Greek art was more restrained and elegant.

"Of course, there was also some cross-pollination between the art of Pompeii and Herculaneum. This is because the two cities were located close together and there was a lot of trade and cultural exchange between them. However, the overall stylistic and thematic differences between the art of the two cities reflect the different cultural backgrounds of the two populations."

Since few structures erected before the 2nd century BCE remain, I used that point in time to see if any architectural remains in Pompeii reflected Etruscan influence compared to Greek-influenced remains in Herculaneum.

Mary: Were Greek-style temples still present in Herculaneum in the 2nd century BCE?

Bard:

"It is likely that Greek-style temples were still present in Herculaneum in the 2nd century BCE. While Herculaneum was a Roman city by this time, it had a strong cultural connection to Greece and continued to adopt Greek architectural styles.

"Evidence suggests that Greek-style temples existed in Herculaneum during this period. For instance, archaeological excavations have unearthed remnants of a temple dedicated to Athena, the Greek goddess of wisdom, dating back to the 4th century BCE. This temple was likely still in use during the 2nd century BCE.

"Moreover, Herculaneum's proximity to Greek colonies in southern Italy, such as Cumae and Neapolis, would have maintained a strong Greek influence on the city's architecture. Greek-style temples were prominent architectural features in these Greek colonies, and their influence would have extended to Herculaneum.

"The continued presence of Greek-style temples in Herculaneum in the 2nd century BCE reflects the enduring cultural ties between Herculaneum and Greece. Despite being a Roman city, Herculaneum preserved its Greek heritage, evident in its architecture, art, and cultural practices.

Mary: Were Etruscan-style temples still present in Pompeii in the 2nd century BCE?

Bard:

"While Pompeii was a Roman city by the 2nd century BCE, there is evidence to suggest that Etruscan-style temples may have still been present in the city. However, the extent to which these temples remained intact and actively used is a matter of debate among historians and archaeologists.

"Pompeii's history is intertwined with the Etruscans, who ruled the region of Campania in southern Italy from the 8th to the 5th century BCE. Etruscan influence on Pompeii's architecture is evident in the city's early temples, which often featured raised podiums, deep porches, and triangular pediments.

"However, as Pompeii transitioned from Etruscan to Roman rule, its architectural style gradually shifted towards Roman conventions. Roman temples typically featured rectangular bases, peristyle courtyards, and columned porches.

"By the 2nd century BCE, Pompeii was a bustling Roman city, and its temples reflected this new architectural style. Examples of these Roman temples include the Temple of Jupiter, the Temple of Venus, and the Temple of Apollo.

"While Roman temples dominated Pompeii's architectural landscape in the 2nd century BCE, it is possible that some Etruscan-style temples may have persisted. These temples may have remained in use for religious purposes or as historical landmarks.

"Archaeological excavations have unearthed remnants of an Etruscan-style temple in Pompeii, suggesting that such structures existed in the city during the 2nd century BCE. However, the extent to which these temples were actively used or preserved is unclear.

"In conclusion, while Etruscan-style temples were likely present in Pompeii in the 2nd century BCE, their prominence had diminished as Roman architectural styles took over. The exact number and state of these temples remain a subject of further investigation.

I was particularly curious if the Temple of Isis in Pompeii reflected any Etruscan influence so I asked about it.

Bard:

"The Temple of Isis in Pompeii exhibits some features that suggest Etruscan influence, although it primarily reflects Roman architectural styles and Egyptian religious symbolism.

"Raised Podium: The temple's raised podium, a platform upon which the temple stood, is a characteristic of Etruscan temple architecture. This elevated position emphasized the temple's sacred importance and separated it from the surrounding buildings.

"Deep Porch: The temple's deep porch, or pronaos, is another Etruscan influence. This deep porch provided a sheltered space for worshippers and rituals before entering the temple's inner sanctum.

"Terracotta Elements: The temple's use of terracotta for decorative elements, such as roof tiles and revetments (wall coverings), is also consistent with Etruscan architectural practices. Terracotta was a readily available and versatile material in the region.

"However, the Temple of Isis also incorporates significant Roman architectural elements and Egyptian religious symbolism, indicating a blend of influences.

"Rectangular Base: The temple's rectangular base is more characteristic of Roman temple architecture than Etruscan temples, which often had triangular or trapezoidal bases.

"Peristyle Courtyard: The temple's peristyle courtyard, surrounded by columns, is a common feature of Roman temples, reflecting their emphasis on symmetry and order.

"Egyptian Motifs: The temple's decoration features Egyptian motifs, such as sphinxes, scarabs, and lotus flowers, reflecting the cult of Isis, an Egyptian goddess who became popular in the Roman world.

"In conclusion, the Temple of Isis in Pompeii represents a fusion of architectural styles and religious influences. While it exhibits some Etruscan features, such as a raised podium, deep porch, and use of terracotta, it also incorporates significant Roman architectural elements and Egyptian religious symbolism, reflecting the cultural and religious diversity of Pompeii in the Roman era."

I wondered if any residential remains in Pompeii dated before the 2nd century BCE still reflected Etruscan influence. Bard considered the House of the Surgeon as a structure that once reflected Etruscan influence in Pompeii (a little difficult to discern now since the home was severely damaged in a World War II bombing raid).

Bard:

"The House of the Surgeon in Pompeii exhibits several features that suggest Etruscan influences, reflecting the cultural exchange between the Etruscans and Romans during the 7th to 4th centuries BCE. The house's use of tufa, a porous volcanic rock, as the primary building material is characteristic of Etruscan architecture. The house's decorative elements, such as mosaics and frescoes, may have incorporated geometric patterns, a common feature of Etruscan art. These geometric motifs often held symbolic significance."

Although the Etruscan's incorporation of columns in their peristyles did reflect an adpatation from Greek architecture, the style and composition of those columns often differed.

Bard:

"The columns in the House of the Surgeon's peristyle were made of tufa, a porous volcanic rock that was commonly used in Etruscan architecture. According to some sources, there were originally 24 columns in the peristyle, but only 23 remain standing today. The columns are Doric in style, which is characterized by their plain, undecorated shafts and capitals with a simple square abacus and a rounded echinus."

Bard also mentioned a realistic bronze statue of a dog that was found in the peristyle of the House of the Surgeon that may reflect an Etruscan influence. This statue, like a number of earlier Etruscan sculptures, was life-sized, measuring 22 inches tall at the shoulder and about 31 inches long from nose to tail.

Bard:

"The statue is of a Molossoid dog, a type of large, muscular dog that was originally bred for guarding and fighting. Molossoid dogs were known for their strength, courage, and loyalty, and they were often depicted in art and literature as symbols of these qualities.

"It is finely detailed and captures the dog's alert and attentive expression. The statue is also notable for its naturalistic pose, which suggests that the sculptor was familiar with the anatomy of dogs."

Bard pointed to the House of the Mosaics as an example of a home illustrating Greek influence in Herculaneum. My first problem was identifying the House of the Mosaics. It was not listed in the index for Herculaneum homes on herculaneum.uk. I asked Bard if the House of the Mosaics was also called the House of the Mosaic Atrium but Bard said no. Later, though, as I continued my queries, Bard referred to the House as also known as the Casa dell' Atrio a mosaic (?). So, I hope I'm comparing the correct residences.

Bard:

"The House of the Mosaics in Herculaneum exhibits several features that suggest strong Greek influence, reflecting the cultural exchange between Greece and Rome during the Hellenistic period (4th to 1st century BCE). The house's overall architectural style, with its emphasis on symmetry, balance, and proportion, aligns with Greek architectural principles.

"The house's two peristyles, garden courtyards surrounded by columns, are a hallmark of Greek architectural style. Peristyles were not as common in Etruscan or early Roman houses, but they became increasingly popular in Roman architecture under Greek influence. The house's use of marble columns, particularly in the peristyles, reflects Greek architectural preferences. Marble was highly valued in Greek culture and was often used in temples, public buildings, and wealthy residences.

"The peristyles in the House of the Mosaics were constructed using brick and faced with marble, reflecting the more refined and luxurious style of the house. The peristyles feature slender Ionic columns, characterized by their fluted shafts and capitals with volutes (spiral scrolls). These Ionic columns reflect the influence of Greek architecture."

Looking through images of the two structures on pompeiiinpictures.com I did notice that The House of the Surgeon's geometric mosaics appear to be more detailed which Bard said are typical of Etruscan decorative style, while those in the House of the Mosaics exhibit simpler, more elegant Greek geometric patterns. Both homes had probably been redecorated during the centuries between Etruscan and Greek control but I noticed after studying archaeological surveys of different houses in Pompeii that, although wall decoration evolved from First to Fourth Styles, mosaic pavements appeared to be rarely removed so I thought a comparison of mosaic styles could be viewed as verification.

I also wondered about any interim Oscan or Samnite influences since the Oscans migrated into the two cities from the central Apennine region of Italy between the 9th - 8th century BCE and became a dominant force in central and southern Italy by the 5th century BCE.

Bard:

They [the Oscans] expanded their territory through a combination of peaceful settlements and military conquests, eventually forming a confederation of city-states.

The Oscans' cultural influence extended beyond their political boundaries. Their language, Oscan, was widely spoken throughout central and southern Italy, and it served as a lingua franca for trade and communication. Oscan inscriptions have been found on a variety of objects, including pottery, coins, and votive offerings, providing valuable insights into their language, culture, and social organization.

While the Oscans gradually assimilated into the expanding Roman Republic in the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE, their language and cultural legacy continued to influence the region for centuries to come.

Mary: Did the Oscans use Etruscan architectural styles or did they have architectural attributes unique to the Oscan culture?

The Oscans adopted some Etruscan architectural styles, particularly in the early stages of their cultural development. However, they also developed their own architectural attributes that reflected their unique cultural identity.

Etruscan Influence on Oscan Architecture

Raised Podiums for Temples: The Oscans adopted the Etruscan practice of constructing temples on raised podiums, elevating the sacred spaces from the surrounding streets and emphasizing their importance.

Deep Porches (Pronaoi) for Temples: The deep porches or pronaoi of Etruscan temples were also incorporated into Oscan architecture, providing sheltered spaces for worshippers and rituals before entering the temple's inner sanctum.

Unique Oscan Architectural Attributes

Rectangular Temple Bases: While some Oscan temples retained the Etruscan triangular pediments, others featured rectangular bases, reflecting a departure from the Etruscan style.

Use of Local Materials: The Oscans often used local materials, such as tufa and limestone, for their buildings, reflecting their adaptation to the natural resources of their region.

Integration of Greek Elements: As the Oscans interacted with Greek colonists in southern Italy, they incorporated Greek architectural elements into their structures, such as columned porches and decorative motifs.

Evolution of Oscan Architecture

Over time, Oscan architecture evolved, blending Etruscan, Greek, and local influences to create a distinct style that reflected their cultural identity. This evolution is evident in the architectural diversity found in Oscan settlements, such as Capua and Benevento.

The Oscans were not merely imitators of Etruscan architecture; they adapted and transformed Etruscan styles while also developing their own unique architectural attributes. Their architecture reflects their cultural interactions with neighboring civilizations [i.e. the Greeks] and their ability to adapt to local conditions. This blending of styles is evident in the use of columned porches, decorative motifs, and rectangular temple bases. Oscan inscriptions, found on various objects in Pompeii, provide valuable insights into their language and culture. These inscriptions often contain religious dedications, personal names, or administrative records.

The Oscans integrated themselves into the population of Herculaneum, too. While Herculaneum was founded by Greek colonists in the 8th century BCE, the Oscans gradually assimilated into the city's population over time. This integration was facilitated by their shared language, Oscan, which was widely spoken in southern Italy.

The Oscans brought their cultural practices and traditions to Herculaneum, and they influenced the city's architecture, art, and religion. For example, Oscan inscriptions and architectural features have been found in Herculaneum, suggesting that the Oscans played a significant role in the city's development.

What about the Samnites?

Mary: Although the Samnites conquered the populations of Pompeii and Herculaneum and ruled for only about a century, did they introduce any architectural characteristics to constructions in either city?

Bard:

No, there is no concrete evidence that the Samnites introduced any distinctive architectural characteristics to either Pompeii or Herculaneum during their relatively short rule. While the Samnites undoubtedly influenced the cultural landscape of these cities, their impact on architecture remains unclear.

Architectural Continuity in Pompeii and Herculaneum

Despite the Samnite conquest, both Pompeii and Herculaneum retained much of their architectural character, which had been shaped by earlier Etruscan and Greek influences. The prevailing architectural styles during the Samnite period continued to reflect these earlier influences, with no clear signs of a significant Samnite architectural imprint.

Limited Archaeological Evidence

Archaeological excavations in Pompeii and Herculaneum have not yielded any definitive architectural features that can be unequivocally attributed to the Samnites. While some minor stylistic variations have been observed, these could be attributed to factors other than Samnite influence, such as local preferences or evolving architectural trends.

Cultural Assimilation over Architectural Innovation

It is more likely that the Samnites integrated into the existing architectural traditions of Pompeii and Herculaneum rather than introducing entirely new ones. Their relatively brief rule and focus on cultural assimilation may not have provided the impetus for significant architectural transformations.

So, while the Samnites undoubtedly played a role in the cultural development of Pompeii and Herculaneum, their direct impact on architecture remains elusive. The existing architectural evidence suggests that the cities retained their pre-Samnite architectural character, with no clear signs of a distinctive Samnite architectural style.

Images: pompeiiinpictures.com and herculaneum.uk provided these images of the two houses discussed above:

House of the Mosaic atrium IV,2 Herculaneum, 2021 Looking east from entrance doorway courtesy of Robert Hanson

House of the Mosaic atrium IV,2 Herculaneum,  Looking east across covered portico with the doorway to large triclinium, on left with doorway to oecus 14 ahead courtesy of Nicolas Monteix

House of the Surgeon Pompeii VI 1,10 Pompeii Room 4, detail from mosaic floor in wing on north side of atrium courtesy of pompeiiinpictures.com

House of the Surgeon Pompeii VI 1,10 Pompeii Room 4, looking north towards detail of mosaic floor in wing on north side of atrium courtesy of the late Tatiana Warsher collection

House of the Surgeon Pompeii VI 1,10 Pompeii c1930 Looking west across threshold of north wing courtesy of M Blake

House of the Mosaic atrium IV,2 Herculaneum,  Looking north-east across peristyle garden 1976 courtesy of Dr George Fay

House of the Mosaic atrium IV,2 Herculaneum,  Undated postcard entitled “ Garden of the house of the mosaic atrium

House of the Mosaic atrium IV,2 Herculaneum, Looking towards windowed portico at north end of garden courtesy of Klaus Heese

House of the Surgeon Pompeii VI 1,10 Pompeii 1804. Room 11, south wall of kitchen, detail from drawing by Piranesi of altar and lararium paintings

House of the Surgeon Pompeii VI 1,10 Pompeii Pre-1804. Room 11, drawing by Piranesi, described as Plan and elevation of the kitchen in the House of the Surgeon

1817 Engraving of the House of the Surgeon, Pompeii from the text Pompeiana.

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