Were ancient sailors buried at sea or taken to the nearest port for burial on land?

Detail from a relief from the palace of Sargon II (722–705 BCE) at Dur Sharrukin, showing the transport of Lebanese cedars in boats with horse-headed prows. Photo: Public Domain.

I recently read the following article about the religious practices and mortuary rituals of ancient Levantine sailors: https://www.asor.org/anetoday/2023/09/maritime-viewscapes 

In it, the author, Aaron Brody, Director of the Bade Museum of Biblical Archaeology and Professor at the Pacific School of Religion, says:

"Many perished at sea. The only detailed mourning rites of Phoenician mariners are found in Ezekiel 27, which indicates that mortuary rituals were not performed aboard ship, which may represent a taboo common among traditional seafarers."

He also described probable tombs of seafarers that contained votive offerings of a seafaring nature such as stone anchors, model ships, and graffiti of ships on their walls indicating the individuals may have died at sea and were returned to land for burial.

This intrigued me so I asked Bard about the burial practices of ancient seafaring cultures.

Mary: If a death occurred on board an ancient ship was the deceased buried at sea or did the captain change course to the nearest port to allow the deceased to be buried on land?

Bard:

"Whether a deceased person was buried at sea or brought to land for burial on an ancient ship depended on a number of factors, including the ship's destination, the religion of the deceased, and the captain's discretion.

"Burial at sea was the most common practice, especially for long voyages where it was impractical to bring the body to land. It was also the preferred practice for many seafaring cultures, who believed that the sea was a sacred place for the dead.

"Burial on land was more common for short voyages or when the ship was already close to port. It was also the preferred practice for some religions, such as Christianity and Judaism.

"In some cases, the captain might change course to the nearest port if the deceased was a high-ranking person or if the family requested it. However, this was not always possible, especially in bad weather or if the ship was far from land.

"Here are some specific examples of burial practices on ancient ships:

"Vikings: The Vikings often practiced ship burials, in which the deceased was placed in a ship with their grave goods and then set adrift at sea. This was considered to be a prestigious burial method, and it was reserved for high-ranking members of society.

"Romans: The Romans typically buried their dead on land, even when they were at sea. However, they would sometimes bury their dead at sea if they were sailing in hostile territory or if the ship was carrying a plague.

"Greeks: The Greeks also typically buried their dead on land. However, they would sometimes bury their dead at sea if the deceased was a sailor or if the death occurred during a long voyage.

"In general, it is safe to say that burial at sea was the most common practice for deaths on ancient ships. However, there were a number of factors that could influence the captain's decision, and there were also some cultures that preferred burial on land.

Since the article was discussing ancient Levantine maritime practices I asked more specifically about that region:

Mary: Were ancient Levantine sailors who died subsequently buried at sea?

Bard:

"There is no definitive answer to the question of whether ancient Levantine sailors who died at sea were buried at sea or brought to land for burial. The evidence is inconclusive, and there is likely to have been variation in practice depending on a number of factors, such as the specific Levantine culture, the religion of the deceased, and the circumstances of the death.

"Some experts believe that burial at sea was the most common practice for ancient Levantine sailors, especially for long voyages where it was impractical to bring the body to land. They point to the fact that the sea was considered to be a sacred place for the dead in many Levantine cultures. Additionally, there is archaeological evidence for ship burials from this region, dating back to the Bronze Age.

"Other experts believe that burial on land was more common for ancient Levantine sailors, especially for short voyages or when the ship was already close to port. They point to the fact that many Levantine cultures had a strong tradition of burying their dead on land, even when they were at sea. Additionally, there is archaeological evidence for cemeteries near ancient Levantine ports, which suggests that sailors were often buried on land.

"It is also possible that both burial at sea and burial on land were practiced by ancient Levantine sailors, depending on the specific circumstances. For example, a sailor who died during a long voyage may have been buried at sea, while a sailor who died near a port may have been buried on land.

"Ultimately, the question of whether ancient Levantine sailors were buried at sea or brought to land for burial is a complex one that cannot be definitively answered. The evidence is inconclusive, and there is likely to have been variation in practice depending on a number of factors."

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Was the Bona Dea scandal contrived between Clodius Pulcher and Julius Caesar?

 An AI-assisted investigation by Mary Harrsch © 2023

Fresco from Herculaneum, insula orientalis II, palaestra, room III courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor ArchaiOptix.

Marc Antony was married to the politically powerful woman Fulvia, daughter of Marcus Fulvius Bambalio and Sempronia. Her previous husbands included Clodius Pulcher and Gaius Scribonius Curio. Antony and Curio were both solidly Caesar's men but what about Clodius Pulcher. Pulcher was, of course, rather infamous for his perceived immoral behavior, but how much of it was really that immoral or proclaimed as such by his political enemies? To explore this question, I used Google's Bard AI utility to examine the relationship between Caesar and Pulcher and the political ramifications of it.

First, I asked Bard about Pulcher's relationship with the Optimates, the political faction that opposed the Populares, the political faction supported by Julius Caesar:

Bard: 

"Clodius Pulcher's relationship with the Optimates was complex and often hostile. He was born into a patrician family, but his political views were more aligned with the Populares, a faction that supported the rights of the common people. Clodius was also a political rival of many leading Optimates, including Cicero.

"In 62 BC, Clodius was accused of sacrilege for allegedly disguising himself as a woman and attending the Bona Dea festival, which was reserved for women only. The Optimates saw this as an opportunity to discredit Clodius and his Populist allies. However, Clodius was acquitted of the charges, and he used this as a springboard to launch his political career.

"In 59 BC, Clodius was elected tribune of the plebs. He used his position to pass a number of laws that were unpopular with the Optimates, including a law that restricted the power of the Senate and a law that distributed land to the poor. Clodius also exiled Cicero, one of the leading Optimates.

"Clodius's relationship with the Optimates continued to deteriorate after he was elected tribune. He was constantly attacking the Optimates in public speeches and writings. He also led a gang of thugs who intimidated and assaulted Optimates.

"In 52 BC, Clodius was killed in a street brawl with his rival, Milo. The Optimates were overjoyed at his death, and they celebrated by tearing down his house.

"Overall, Clodius Pulcher's relationship with the Optimates was one of constant conflict. He was a thorn in their side, and they did everything they could to destroy him."

Observation: This would indicate Pulcher would have supported many of the same political objectives of the Populares, also supported by Julius Caesar. So what relationship did Pulcher have with Caesar?

Bard:

"Clodius Pulcher and Julius Caesar had a complex and often shifting relationship. They were initially political rivals, but Clodius later became a valuable ally to Caesar.

"In 62 BC, Clodius was accused of sacrilege for allegedly attending the Bona Dea festival, which was reserved for women only. Caesar was then the Pontifex Maximus, the chief religious official in Rome. He presided over Clodius's trial, but he refused to testify against him. This led to speculation that Caesar was involved in the scandal, or that he was at least sympathetic to Clodius.

"In 59 BC, Clodius was elected tribune of the plebs. He used his position to pass a number of laws that were beneficial to Caesar, such as a law that granted land to Caesar's veterans and a law that gave Caesar command of the provinces of Gaul and Illyricum for five years. Clodius also exiled Cicero, who was one of Caesar's political rivals.

"In 52 BC, Clodius was killed in a street brawl with his rival, Milo. Caesar was then in Gaul, but he returned to Rome shortly after Clodius's death. He prosecuted Milo for Clodius's murder, but Milo was acquitted.

"It is difficult to say definitively what motivated Clodius's alliance with Caesar. It is possible that Clodius was simply grateful to Caesar for not testifying against him at his trial. It is also possible that Clodius saw Caesar as a powerful ally who could help him achieve his own political goals.

"Whatever the reason, Clodius Pulcher's alliance with Julius Caesar was a significant event in Roman history. It helped to pave the way for Caesar's rise to power and the eventual collapse of the Roman Republic."

Observation: Much as been made of Pulcher's sacriligeous violation of the Bona Dea's religious rites held at the house of Julius Caesar in 62 BCE. But I couldn't help but wonder what else was going on that year that may have prompted Pulcher to participate in such an act. According to the Bard, Pompeius Magnus, who had defeated pirates in the eastern Mediterranean after raising a large army, proposed to return to Rome in 62 BC.

Bard:

"Pompey had been campaigning in the East for several years, and he had amassed a large army and a great deal of wealth. Clodius feared that Pompey would use his power and influence to seize control of the Roman government.

"Clodius's opposition to Pompey was motivated by a combination of political and personal factors. Clodius was a member of the Populares faction, while Pompey was a member of the Optimates faction. 

"Despite Clodius's opposition, Pompey's legislation was passed by the Roman Senate and he was eventually allowed to return to Rome." 

So, Did Julius Caesar oppose Pompey's return to Rome in 62 BCE?

Bard:

"There is no clear evidence that Julius Caesar opposed Pompey's return to Rome in 62 BC. However, it is possible that he had some reservations about Pompey's return, given the growing political tensions between the two men.

"Pompey had been campaigning in the East for several years, and he had amassed a large army and a great deal of wealth. Caesar feared that Pompey would use his power and influence to seize control of the Roman government.

"In addition, Caesar and Pompey had different political views. Caesar was a member of the Populares faction, which supported the common people and opposed the traditional Roman aristocracy. Pompey was a member of the Optimates faction, which supported the traditional Roman aristocracy and opposed the common people.

"Despite these concerns, Caesar did not publicly oppose Pompey's return to Rome. He may have done this for a number of reasons. First, he may have wanted to avoid a direct confrontation with Pompey. Second, he may have believed that Pompey could be a useful ally in his own political ambitions. Third, he may have simply believed that it was in the best interests of the Roman Republic to allow Pompey to return.

"Ultimately, Pompey was allowed to return to Rome in 62 BC. Caesar's decision to support Pompey's return is one of the most debated moments in his career. Some historians believe that Caesar was naive and that he underestimated Pompey's ambition. Others believe that Caesar was playing a long game and that he saw Pompey's return as an opportunity to further his own political ambitions.

"Whatever Caesar's motivations, his decision to support Pompey's return had a profound impact on the course of Roman history. It helped to fuel the political instability and violence that ultimately led to the fall of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire."

So, would the Bona Dea incident impact Pompeius Magnus' political standing upon his return to Rome?

Bard: 

"It is possible that the Bona Dea incident in 62 BC was contrived by Julius Caesar and Clodius Pulcher to diminish the power of Pompey. However, there is no definitive proof to support this claim.

"The Bona Dea incident was a religious scandal that involved Clodius Pulcher, a member of the Populares faction in the Roman Senate. Clodius was accused of sacrilege for profaning the mysteries of the Bona Dea, a women's-only religious ritual. Caesar's wife, Pompeia Sabina, was one of the women who participated in the ritual, and there were rumors that Clodius had disguised himself as a woman and snuck into the event in order to seduce her. 

[In another query Bard points out "Poppaea Sabina was the daughter of Quintus Poppaeus Sabinus, a close ally of Pompey's."]

"Clodius was ultimately acquitted. However, the scandal damaged Pompeia's reputation, and Caesar divorced her soon after.

"Some historians believe that the Bona Dea incident was a plot by Caesar and Clodius to discredit Pompey and weaken his position in the Roman Senate. Pompey was a popular and powerful politician, and Caesar and Clodius may have seen him as a threat to their own political ambitions.

"There is some evidence to support this claim. For example, Clodius was a known associate of Caesar, and he had benefited from Caesar's political support in the past. Additionally, Caesar's decision to divorce Pompeia after the Bona Dea scandal may have been motivated by a desire to distance himself from Pompey and to avoid being associated with the scandal.

"However, there is also evidence to suggest that the Bona Dea incident was not a contrived plot. For example, Clodius had a history of reckless and impulsive behavior, and it is possible that he simply made a mistake. Additionally, there is no evidence that Caesar was directly involved in the planning or execution of the plot.

"Ultimately, it is impossible to say for sure whether or not the Bona Dea incident was contrived by Julius Caesar and Clodius Pulcher to diminish the power of Pompey. However, it is a possibility that should not be discounted.

"In conclusion, it is possible that the Bona Dea incident in 62 BC was contrived by Julius Caesar and Clodius Pulcher to diminish the power of Pompey. However, there is no definitive proof to support this claim. The evidence is inconclusive, and there are multiple interpretations of the events that took place."

Observation: Although this incident may have served as a temporary reminder to Pompey that he faced some formidable opposition in Rome, it may have ultimately led Pompey to engage with Caesar in the First Triumvirate, a deal sweetened by the marriage of Pompey to Caesar's daughter, Julia. Caesar took advantage of the incident to divorce Pompeia and marry Calpurnia Piso, daughter of a staunch Optimate, Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso. So why would Piso agree to such a marriage?

Bard:

"Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, Calpurnia's father, was a member of the Optimate faction, which was opposed to the Populares faction led by Julius Caesar. However, he agreed to the marriage between his daughter and Caesar for a number of reasons.

"First, Caesar was a very powerful and influential man. He had served as consul and proconsul, and he was one of the most successful generals in Roman history. Calpurnius Piso may have believed that marrying his daughter to Caesar would advance his own political career.

[Caesar won the civic crown for saving the life of a fellow citizen in battle at the siege of Mytilene in 81 BCE. He also led troops successfully in engagements during the Third Mithridatic War during 75-74 BCE. Later after his praetorship, he was given the governorship of Hispania Ulterior where he campaigned against the Callaeci and Lusitani and seized the Callaeci capital in northwestern Spain, bringing Roman troops to the Atlantic and seizing enough plunder to pay his debts and was hailed imperator. However, the conquest of Gaul had not yet occurred at the time of his marriage to Calpurnia.]

"Second, Caesar was a wealthy man. He had amassed a great deal of wealth from his military campaigns and his political connections. Calpurnius Piso may have been attracted to Caesar's wealth and the prospect of improving his own financial situation.

[I am skeptical about the above paragraph, however. Caesar was deeply in debt until his campaigns in Hispania Ulterior and he negotiated the formation of the First Triumvirate in 60 BCE and had the financial backing of Crassus. Caesar later proved to be a "good investment" for Crassus when he gained so much wealth sacking Gaul. Piso himself, on the other hand, was already extremely wealthy as evidenced by the Villa dei Papyri in Herculaneum.]

"Third, Caesar was a member of the patrician class, the highest social class in Roman society. Calpurnius Piso was a member of the equestrian class, the second-highest social class. Marrying his daughter to Caesar would have elevated Calpurnius Piso's social status and the status of his family.

[This is, in my opinion, the ultimate reason Piso would agree to such a match - the elevation in social status the marriage represented.]

"Finally, Calpurnia was a beautiful and intelligent woman. Caesar was known to be attracted to beautiful women, and he may have been drawn to Calpurnia's beauty and intelligence.

"In conclusion, Calpurnius Piso agreed to the marriage between his daughter and Caesar for a number of reasons, including Caesar's power, wealth, social status, and Calpurnia's own beauty and intelligence. It is important to note that the marriage was arranged by the two men, and there is no evidence to suggest that Calpurnia herself had any say in the matter."

Observation: But why would Pulcher agree to such obvious sacrilege? The ensuing trial helped Clodius forge alliances with his benefactors. He regarded Crassus as his chief patron, who bribed the majority of jurors to the tune of between 300,000 - 400,000 sesterces, and was grateful to Caesar for disclaiming any direct knowledge of the events. He sought no retribution against those who had led his prosecution, apparently considering it fair repayment for the wrongs he had done them. However, he was greatly affronted by Cicero, who had attempted to bring about his downfall by testifying against him not realizing his sister's attempt to seduce Cicero would have caused backlash from Cicero's formidable wife Terentia. He also regarded the antipathy shown toward him by Pompeius Magnus as a betrayal. When Clodius had stirred disaffection amongst his former brother-in law Lucullus' troops in the east, it had been to Pompeius' advantage, and the latter's rivalry with both Lucullus and Cicero would seem to have made him Clodius' natural ally; yet Pompeius had not lifted a finger to help him during the trial. Perhaps Clodius foresaw this lack of support so any discomfort the incident would have caused Pompeius Magnus would have been viewed as justified.

So, was Clodius Pulcher an ally of Julius Caesar?

Bard: 

"On the one hand, they were both members of the Populares faction, which supported the common people and opposed the traditional Roman aristocracy. They also had some common political interests, such as expanding the power of the tribunes of the plebs and reforming the Roman land distribution system.

"However, Clodius was also a volatile and unpredictable individual, and he was often at odds with Caesar. For example, in 61 BC, Clodius accused Caesar of participating in the Catiline Conspiracy, which was a plot to overthrow the Roman government. Caesar was eventually acquitted of the charge, but the incident damaged his relationship with Clodius.

"Despite their differences, however, Clodius and Caesar eventually reconciled. In 56 BC, Clodius helped Caesar to secure the position of proconsul of Gaul. Caesar, in turn, helped Clodius to become praetor in 53 BC.

"The relationship between Clodius and Caesar was a complex one, marked by both cooperation and conflict. However, their alliance was ultimately beneficial to both men. Clodius helped Caesar to rise to power, and Caesar helped Clodius to achieve his own political goals."

Note: I have omitted some of Bard's comments that I deemed incorrect from traditional research. Bard seems to have a bit of a problem interpreting events with BC dates as before or after each other. Bard also seems to confuse events in the order they occurred. For example, the above comment about Caesar's personal wealth really only applied after his service in Hispania Ulterior and subsequent conquest of Gaul. Before that time Caesar was deeply in debt from climbing the cursus honorum and obtained the backing of Crassus after the formation of the First Triumvirate. Bard provides some interesting background material but it must be augmented or, in some cases, supplanted by information from traditional research to provide context. 

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 Anthropological research using ChatGPT: Charity in the ancient world (Warning: Long Post) by Mary Harrsch

Silenus with the baby Dionysus - Roman marble copy from Greek original at the Vatican Museum.

One of the readers of my article, “Ancient Eugenics: Much more than selective infanticide”, asked me if there was a major difference between Jews and Christians on the one hand and the Greco-Roman (pagan) world on the other in their views on infanticide. That same day news of a new version (4.0) of ChatGPT was released. So, I decided to give the new research tool a try by asking a series of questions about infanticide and the problem of orphaned children and other disadvantaged individuals in the ancient world, by culture, around the Mediterranean. I decided to restrict my queries to cultures with centralized administrations that I was reasonably sure had been the subjects of extensive excavations and scholarly activities to give ChatGPT the best chance of generating a response based on a reasonable data sample. I also assumed that the mitigation of poverty would have had the greatest effect of reducing the social need for infanticide or the abandonment or sale of children from nuclear families. I found the results I obtained from these queries quite interesting.

Since Christianity was eventually adopted by the Roman state in the 4th century, and some scholars consider it a primary influence on the reduction of infanticide or “child exposure” in Roman society I began with it and received a generalized summary of the issue:

“Infanticide has been a practice in many cultures throughout history for various reasons, such as poverty, disease, or cultural practices.

“The rise of Christianity did lead to a decrease in infanticide in certain cultures [not substantiated by my queries at least], particularly in the Roman Empire. This was due in part to the Christian belief in the sanctity of life, which discouraged the killing of infants. [The “sanctity of life” construct was adopted from Jewish law and scriptures. Although practiced by Jewish converts, this principle contained in the Old Testament was not officially adopted by early Gentile converts until the official “canon” was established in later antiquity.] Additionally, early Christian communities often provided support and assistance to parents who were struggling to care for their children, which may have helped to reduce the number of infants who were abandoned or killed [I am skeptical of this statement. The vast majority of early Christians were slaves and members of the lower classes in Rome. These individuals would not have the resources to advance to fellow struggling families in any large numbers. There may have been a few wealthy converts and these may represent the rare examples of philanthropy pointed to by early Christians in their evangelical efforts. This, of course, changed with the adoption of Christianity by the Roman state in the 4th century CE.]

“However, it is important to note that the decrease in infanticide was not solely due to the rise of Christianity. Other factors, such as changes in social and economic conditions, also played a role in reducing the practice. Additionally, infanticide continued to occur in some Christian societies, particularly in areas where poverty and hardship were prevalent.

“Overall, while the rise of Christianity may have contributed to a decrease in infanticide in some cultures, it is not accurate to say that it was the sole cause of this phenomenon.” - ChatGPT

I began to drill down, then, and evaluate charitable laws and policies of Roman culture and other contemporary Mediterranean cultures to provide social context and insight into practices that may have influenced Roman culture through trade and military contact. So, how did each culture address the problem of poverty?

Roman culture:

Question: How did the ancient Romans address poverty?

“The ancient Romans had a complex system for addressing poverty that evolved over time. In the early Roman Republic, the government provided some basic assistance to the poor through a system of grain distributions known as the "annona." However, this assistance was limited and sporadic.

“As Rome grew in power and wealth, the government's approach to poverty became more sophisticated. The emperor Augustus established a welfare system that provided monthly allowances to eligible citizens, including children, the elderly, and those with disabilities. This system, known as the "alimenta," was funded by taxes on wealthy citizens and provided food, clothing, and education to those in need.

“In addition to government assistance, the Roman elite often engaged in philanthropy as a way of demonstrating their wealth and status. Wealthy individuals would donate money or land to build public facilities such as baths, aqueducts, and hospitals, which could benefit the poor as well as the general population.

“However, poverty remained a significant problem in ancient Rome, and the government's efforts to address it were often limited and uneven. Many poor Romans relied on private charity, begging, or even crime to survive. Despite these challenges, the Roman approach to poverty provides an interesting historical perspective on the ways in which societies have attempted to support those in need.” – ChatGPT

I thought this was a decent high-level summary although it lacked the detail needed for a more comprehensive comparison. So, I asked, “What Roman laws addressed poverty?” and generated some of the detail I was looking for.

“There were several Roman laws and policies that addressed poverty and provided assistance to the poor. Here are some examples:

“Lex Frumentaria: This law, passed in 123 BCE, required the government to distribute grain to the poor at a subsidized price. The amount of grain given to each individual was based on family size and income, with the poorest families receiving the most.

“Lex Caecilia Didia: This law, passed in 98 BCE, required individuals who wanted to propose a new law to first submit it to the Senate for review. This law was intended to prevent laws that would be harmful to the poor from being passed.

“Lex Iunia Norbana: This law, passed in 64 CE, granted Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Roman Empire who had been born to a free citizen father and had lived in Rome for a certain period of time. This law helped to ensure that more people had access to the legal protections and benefits of Roman citizenship.

“Alimenta: This was a policy introduced by Emperor Trajan in the early 2nd century CE, which provided assistance to poor and orphaned children. The policy involved providing funds to local communities to support the education and upbringing of these children.

“Public works projects: The Roman government also engaged in various public works projects, such as building aqueducts and roads, which provided employment opportunities for the poor.

“Overall, while the Roman government did not have a comprehensive system of social welfare, there were laws and policies in place to address poverty and provide assistance to those in need.” – ChatGPT

Although ChatGPT made an oblique connection between poverty and the rights of Roman citizens, it did not make the more direct connection between poverty and family size so did not mention the Lex Papia Poppaea: This law encouraged marriage and childbearing among Roman citizens. It provided financial incentives for those who married and had children, and imposed penalties on those who remained unmarried or had no children.

However, Augustus' morality laws were aimed at the upper classes because of a falling birth rate he perceived among the elite during his reign. So, I asked ChatGPT if these morality laws applied to all Roman citizens:

"Like many laws in ancient Rome, the morality laws of Augustus did not apply equally to all Roman citizens. The laws were primarily aimed at the upper classes, who were seen as the guardians of traditional Roman values. Wealthy citizens and members of the aristocracy were expected to set an example for the rest of society by following these laws and promoting virtuous behavior.

"At the same time, many aspects of Roman life were regulated by social norms and customs rather than laws. While the morality laws of Augustus were intended to promote certain values, the actual practice of these values varied widely depending on social class, region, and personal circumstances. For example, while the laws encouraged marriage and childbearing, it was not uncommon for wealthy Roman men to engage in extramarital affairs or have children with concubines or slaves.

"In short, the morality laws of Augustus were one aspect of a complex system of social norms, customs, and laws that regulated behavior in ancient Rome. While these laws were intended to apply to all Roman citizens, their actual impact and enforcement varied depending on social status and personal circumstances." - ChatGPT

Since I am trying to evaluate a historical trend and this law would have directly influenced family size and perhaps any propensity to commit infanticide, I asked ChatGPT if Augustus' morality laws were ever repealed or modified.

"Yes, the morality laws of Augustus were modified and repealed over time as political and social conditions changed in Rome.

"During the reigns of Augustus's successors, some of the more restrictive laws regulating marriage and sexual behavior were relaxed. For example, the Lex Iulia de Maritandis Ordinibus was eventually repealed, and restrictions on inter-class marriages were eased.

"Similarly, the laws regarding adultery and sexual morality were modified to reflect changing attitudes toward sexuality and gender roles. Under the emperor Nero, for example, adultery was decriminalized, and same-sex relationships were tolerated to a greater extent.

"However, some of Augustus's morality laws remained in place for centuries, particularly those related to public order and corruption. For example, the Lex Iulia de Vi Publica et Privata continued to be enforced throughout the Roman Empire, and laws against corruption remained on the books for centuries.

"Overall, the morality laws of Augustus were an important part of Roman law and society, but they were not set in stone. Like all laws, they were subject to change over time as political and social conditions shifted, and as attitudes toward morality and behavior evolved." - ChatGPT

Although this response referred to two of the other morality laws of Augustus, it does not mention the Lex Papia Poppaea. So I rephrased my query and asked directly if the Lex Papia Poppaea was ever modified or repealed.

"The Lex Papia Poppaea, which was a set of laws passed by Augustus to promote marriage and childbearing, was modified and repealed over time as social and economic conditions changed in the Roman Empire.

"Under the emperor Caracalla in the 3rd century CE, the law was modified to provide financial incentives for those who married and had children, regardless of social status. This change was intended to encourage population growth and address the declining birthrate in the Roman Empire.

"In the 4th century CE, the emperor Constantine repealed many of the restrictions on marriage contained in the law. He also introduced new laws that further encouraged marriage and childbearing, such as tax exemptions for families with children.

"Over time, the incentives provided by the Lex Papia Poppaea became less important as the Roman economy shifted from an agrarian to an urban economy. In the late Roman Empire, many of the financial incentives provided by the law were no longer relevant or effective, and the law was eventually repealed. { I would point to the extreme financial exigency of the period.]

"In summary, while the Lex Papia Poppaea played an important role in promoting marriage and childbearing in ancient Rome, its provisions were modified and repealed over time as social and economic conditions changed in the Roman Empire." - ChatGPT

From my perspective, I think the financial incentives contained within the Lex Papia Poppaea would probably have more influence on the behavior of the overall population than religious mandates of a sect that, before Constantine, composed less than 10% of the population. (See "A World Full of Gods" by Professor Keith Hopkins)

Since I'm also comparing pagan practices to Christian/Jewish practices, I also asked:

Did any Roman religion mandate behavior towards children?

"There is no evidence to suggest that any Roman religion mandated specific behavior towards children. However, the concept of pietas, or piety, was an important part of ancient Roman religion and ethics, and it included an expectation of respect and duty towards one's family, including children.

"The Roman family was considered a sacred institution, and the welfare of children was considered a priority. Roman law recognized the rights and responsibilities of parents and children, and parents were expected to provide for their children's basic needs, such as food, shelter, and education.

"There were also a number of customs and traditions associated with Roman family life that emphasized the importance of children. For example, the birth of a child was a significant event, and families often celebrated the arrival of a new child with feasting and gift-giving." - ChatGPT

Now, let’s explore the provisions made to mitigate poverty in surrounding cultures.

Egypt:

“Ancient Egypt had a complex social and economic system, and poverty was a persistent issue for many people, particularly those living in rural areas. The government and religious institutions played a significant role in addressing poverty and providing support to those in need.

“One way that the government addressed poverty was through a system of taxation and redistribution of wealth. Wealthy landowners and merchants were required to pay taxes and contribute to public works projects, such as irrigation systems and temples. These projects provided employment opportunities for the poor, as well as resources for the community.

“In addition to taxation, the government also provided support to the poor in the form of food and other basic necessities. Temples and other religious institutions played a significant role in this, as they were often responsible for distributing food and other resources to the needy.

“Charitable giving was also an important part of Egyptian culture, and wealthy individuals and families were expected to provide support to those in need. This was often done through the construction of public works projects, such as wells or granaries, that benefited the community as a whole.

“Overall, while poverty was a persistent issue in ancient Egypt, the government and religious institutions played an important role in addressing it through a combination of taxation, redistribution of wealth, and charitable giving.” - ChatGPT

Was infanticide practiced in ancient Egypt?

“There is limited evidence to suggest that infanticide was practiced in ancient Egypt, although it may have been rare and not widely accepted. The ancient Egyptians held a high value for children and families, and there are several depictions in art and literature of parents doting on and caring for their children.

“However, there are some references to infanticide in ancient Egyptian texts and some archaeological evidence that suggests the practice occurred in some instances. For example, there are references in some texts to the killing of infants who were deemed illegitimate or who were born to mothers who could not support them. It is also possible that infants were sometimes abandoned or left to die if they were deemed unwanted or if their parents could not afford to care for them.

“Additionally, some archaeological evidence has been found of infant burials that suggest that the infants may have been intentionally killed or left to die. However, it is difficult to determine the extent to which infanticide was practiced in ancient Egypt, as the available evidence is limited and biased towards the perspectives of the ruling elite.” – ChatGPT

Persia:

“The Persian Empire had a complex administrative and social system that addressed poverty in various ways. Here are some ways that the Persians addressed poverty:

“Royal charity: The Persian kings engaged in acts of charity towards their subjects, which included providing food, clothing, and shelter to those in need. The royal treasury was used to fund these charitable works.

“Public works projects: The Persian kings also engaged in public works projects, such as the construction of roads, bridges, and aqueducts. These projects provided employment opportunities for the poor and contributed to the overall welfare of the population.

“Land reforms: The Persian kings implemented land reforms that aimed to distribute land more fairly among the population. This allowed more people to own land and provided a means for them to support themselves.

“Zoroastrianism: Zoroastrianism, the dominant religion of the Persian Empire, placed a strong emphasis on charity and the care of the poor. The religion encouraged followers to engage in acts of charity and to help those in need.

“Taxation: The Persian Empire had a complex tax system that was designed to provide for the welfare of the population. Taxes were collected from the wealthy and redistributed to the poor in the form of food, clothing, and shelter.

“Overall, the Persian Empire had a complex system of governance that aimed to provide for the welfare of the population, including the poor. While poverty still existed in Persia, these measures helped to alleviate some of the worst effects of poverty and ensured that the population had access to basic necessities.” - ChatGPT

Was infanticide practiced in ancient Persia?

“There is little evidence to suggest that infanticide was commonly practiced in ancient Persia. However, the historical record is somewhat limited and there may have been isolated instances of infanticide.

“In general, the Persian Empire had a strong tradition of family values and respect for children, which was reflected in their laws and customs. Children were considered a valuable asset to society and were given special protection and care.

“The Zoroastrian religion, which was the predominant religion in ancient Persia, also placed a high value on the sanctity of life and prohibited the taking of innocent life, including the killing of children.

“In addition, the Persian Empire had a well-developed legal system that recognized the rights of children and protected them from harm. For example, the Persian legal code contained provisions to punish parents who mistreated or neglected their children.

“Overall, while there is little evidence to suggest that infanticide was commonly practiced in ancient Persia, it is possible that isolated instances of the practice may have occurred. However, the strong cultural and religious values placed on family and the sanctity of life suggest that such instances would have been rare and generally condemned by society.” - ChatGPT

Greece:

“Poverty was a persistent issue in ancient Greece, particularly in urban areas where there was a high concentration of people. While there was no single approach to addressing poverty, a number of different strategies were used to provide assistance to the poor and vulnerable.

“One approach to addressing poverty in ancient Greece was through public works projects. This included the construction of infrastructure such as roads, aqueducts, and public buildings. These projects provided employment opportunities for the poor and helped to stimulate economic growth in the region.

“Another approach to addressing poverty was through charitable giving. Wealthy individuals and families were expected to provide support to those in need, often through the provision of food, clothing, and other basic necessities. Charitable giving was seen as a way to demonstrate one's social status and gain the respect of the community.

“Religious institutions also played an important role in addressing poverty in ancient Greece. Temples and other religious organizations provided assistance to the poor, often through the distribution of food and other resources. In addition, some temples operated as banks, providing loans and financial assistance to those in need.

“Finally, the government also played a role in addressing poverty in ancient Greece, although the approach varied depending on the region and time period. In some cases, the government provided direct assistance to the poor, while in others they implemented policies designed to stimulate economic growth and create employment opportunities.

“Overall, while poverty was a persistent issue in ancient Greece, a number of different strategies were used to address it. These included public works projects, charitable giving, support from religious institutions, and government assistance.” - ChatGPT

Did the ancient Greeks practice infanticide?

“There is some evidence to suggest that infanticide was practiced in ancient Greece, particularly in cases where children were born with physical deformities or other disabilities. However, it is important to note that the practice of infanticide was not widespread, and it was generally frowned upon by Greek society.

“The evidence for infanticide in ancient Greece comes primarily from written sources, such as the works of the historian Plutarch and the philosopher Aristotle. These sources suggest that infanticide was sometimes practiced by families who were unable to care for their children or who saw them as a burden.

“However, it is also clear that infanticide was not a socially acceptable practice in ancient Greece. Laws were in place to protect children from harm, and those who were found guilty of infanticide could face severe punishment.

“In addition, many aspects of Greek culture, such as the emphasis on family and community, placed a high value on the sanctity of life, particularly the lives of children. As such, while infanticide may have occurred in ancient Greece, it was generally viewed as a last resort and was not condoned by society as a whole. - ChatGPT

Judea:

“The ancient Jews had a strong tradition of caring for the poor, which was based on religious and moral principles.

“In the Hebrew Bible, the Torah contains many laws and commandments related to poverty and helping the needy. For example, farmers were required to leave the corners of their fields unharvested so that the poor could gather food, and they were also required to give a portion of their harvest to the poor. There were also laws regarding debt forgiveness and the release of slaves after a certain period of time, which provided some protection for the poor and enslaved.

“In addition to these laws, there were also institutions in ancient Jewish society that were dedicated to helping the poor. For example, there were organizations known as "gemach" or "g'mach" (which stands for "gemilut chasadim," or acts of kindness) that provided interest-free loans to those in need. There were also charitable organizations, known as "tzedakah," which collected donations and distributed them to the poor.

“Furthermore, caring for the poor was seen as a moral obligation for all Jews, and acts of charity were considered to be one of the most important mitzvot (commandments) in Judaism.

“Overall, the ancient Jews had a strong tradition of caring for the poor, which was based on religious and moral principles. Through laws, institutions, and individual acts of charity, the Jewish community worked to alleviate poverty and help those in need." - ChatGPT

Although Assyria was a much older civilization than Rome, I couldn’t help but ask ChatGPT about its attempts to address poverty, especially since it is usually represented as such a brutal culture.

Assyria:

“There is limited information about how the Assyrian Empire addressed poverty, but there are some records and archaeological evidence that suggest that they had measures in place to provide assistance to the poor and needy.

“Royal charity: Assyrian kings engaged in acts of charity towards their subjects, which included providing food, clothing, and shelter to those in need. The annals of the Assyrian kings record instances of royal charity, such as the distribution of food during times of famine or the provision of clothing to soldiers.

“Public works projects: The Assyrian kings also engaged in public works projects, such as the construction of canals, fortresses, and irrigation systems. These projects provided employment opportunities for the poor and contributed to the overall welfare of the population.

“Laws protecting the poor: The Assyrian kings also passed laws protecting the poor from exploitation and mistreatment. For example, there are records of laws that prohibited landlords from evicting tenants who were unable to pay their rent and laws that mandated fair wages for workers.

“Religious institutions: The Assyrian religion placed a strong emphasis on charity and the care of the poor. Temples and religious institutions played a role in providing assistance to the poor, including food, clothing, and shelter.

“Overall, while the Assyrian Empire was known for its military conquests and harsh treatment of conquered peoples, there is evidence to suggest that the Assyrian kings had measures in place to address poverty and provide assistance to the needy.” - ChatGPT

Was infanticide practiced in the Assyrian empire?

“There is limited information about the practice of infanticide in the Assyrian Empire, but there is some evidence to suggest that it was not uncommon.

“Assyrian society was patriarchal, and having male children was highly valued. Female infants were sometimes seen as a burden, as they were not considered as useful for labor or military purposes. Additionally, it was believed that male children had a better chance of carrying on the family line and providing for their parents in old age.

“There are records of Assyrian kings engaging in the practice of infanticide. For example, the annals of the Assyrian king Sennacherib record that he ordered the killing of all of his brothers' male children in order to prevent them from challenging his rule. Additionally, there are records of Assyrian soldiers killing infants during military campaigns.

“It is worth noting that infanticide was not unique to the Assyrian Empire, and was practiced in other ancient societies as well. However, it is difficult to determine the extent to which infanticide was practiced in Assyria, as the historical records are limited and biased towards the perspectives of the ruling elite.” - ChatGPT

So, it appears to me ChatGPT, responding to increasingly more targeted questions, can produce quite usable information. What was most astonishing to me was how quickly I could gather so much information!

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Part 2 of the 5th 30 minute segment of the Virtual Pompeii Walk recorded by ProWalk Tours

Part 2 of the 5th 30 minute segment of the Virtual Pompeii Walk recorded by ProWalk Tours. In this segment we see the entrance, at least, to the House of Obellius Firmus, a domus almost as large as the House of the Faun, WWII bomb damage, the remains of a street altar, another relief of Priapus (viewer discretion advised), marine mosaics of the Domus of M Caesi Blandi, and explore the House of the Wounded Bear, another domus featuring a mosaic fountain, beautiful mosaic floors, and hunt-themed murals.

All of these images are screen captures from the Pompeii Walking Tour 2020 video courtesy of the POMPEII ARCHAEOLOGICAL PARK and ProWalk Tours. Note: ProWalk Tours as producer of the original video footage has agreed to allow my derivative still images to be licensed with Creative Commons Attribution Sharealike. I have used Topaz Sharpen AI to remove the slight motion blur in screen captures as well as Adobe Camera Raw to adjust clarity, texture, highlights, shadows, and occasionally haze and white balance. I increased dynamic contrast and added a subtle vignette with On1 Photo Raw Effects and removed distracting visitors and replaced empty skies with Photoshop and its Sky Replacement feature, changing the blend mode from Screen to Multiply to avoid excessive editing of the mask layer.

You can explore the Pompeii Walk video yourself here - no special hardware is required:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sUYJ8LbF1Ys

Peristyle restoration Pompeii Walk

Atrium house bombed during WWII Pompeii Walk

Peristyle with Lararium niche Pompeii Walk

Another view of fountain with tablinum mosaic in the foreground in House of the Wounded Bear Pompeii Walk

Arched building that once contained a street altar Pompeii Walk

Priapus makes another appearance in a door post relief Pompeii Walk

Closeup of Priapus Relief on door post Pompeii Walk

More interesting door post graphics Pompeii Walk

Marine mosaic in the entry of the Domus of M Caesi Blandi Pompeii Walk

Welcome mosaic in the entrance of the House of the Wounded Bear Pompeii Walk

House of the Wounded Bear atrium with fountain in the rear Pompeii Walk

Fountain and tablinum with mosaic floor in the House of the Wounded Bear Pompeii Walk

Fountain in the House of the Wounded Bear Pompeii Walk

View from the atrium towards the entrance in the House of the Wounded Bear Pompeii Walk

1888 Watercolor painting of the entrance to the House of the Wounded Bear by Luigi Bazzani

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