by Mary Harrsch © 2025 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15420169
In Greek mythology, the centaur—a creature half-man,
half-horse—stands as a potent symbol of contradiction, embodying the tension
between civilization and savagery, reason and instinct.
|  | | Drawings of a Fresco of Chiron teaching music to Achilles from the Augusteum in Herculaneum, 1st century CE by Wilhelm Zahn, 1828. |
|
Far from a mere
imaginative flourish, the centaur reflects deep cultural encounters and
inherited mythological patterns that shaped how ancient Greeks understood both
themselves and the alien ‘other’ (Buxton, 2004). This article traces the roots
of the centaur myth not to the Greek mainland alone, but to earlier and broader
cultural exchanges.
The earliest known depiction of a human-horse hybrid
(centaur) comes from Paleolithic cave art in the Cave of Lascaux in France,
dating to approximately 17,000-15,000 BCE. These primitive centaur-like figures
depict beings with human upper bodies and horse- or deer-like lower bodies (Clottes,
2008). While not exactly the classic Greek centaur with a complete horse body,
these are considered the earliest artistic representations of human-animal
hybrids that include horse-like elements and suggest that the fusion of human
and animal traits—especially with hoofed creatures—has deep roots in human
imagination.
The more formalized concept of the centaur as we commonly
recognize it today, however, developed later in ancient Greek culture, beginning
with the Mycenaeans, around 1450-1200 BCE. Linear B tablets from Knossos (c.
1450-1400 BCE) contain possible references to ‘horse-men’ figures, though
interpretation remains debated among scholars (Chadwick, 1976).
The Mycenaean Greeks, whose horizons extended eastward
through contact with the sophisticated Hittite world, were exposed to a
mythological landscape filled with human-animal hybrids—sphinxes, griffins, and
lion-headed deities—that blurred the lines between human and beast (Collins,
2002). The Hittites absorbed artistic and mythological influences from
Mesopotamian, Syrian, and indigenous Anatolian traditions, all of which
featured various human-animal hybrids. These creatures guarded sacred spaces or
served as liminal figures mediating between the divine and mortal worlds. Furthermore,
these hybrids were not necessarily evil or monstrous; rather, they embodied
boundary states and spiritual potency. Such imagery may have seeded a framework
in which the blending of human and animal traits could be imbued with cultural
and psychological meaning.
 |
Hittite Lion-headed demons from Arslantepe
courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor Ingeborg Simon |
Later, as Greek communities encountered nomadic horse-riding
peoples of the Eurasian steppe—such as the Cimmerians—these distant riders
appeared uncanny, unfamiliar, and at times, inseparable from the horses they
rode (Anthony, 2007). Much like Indigenous peoples of the Americas first seeing
Spanish cavalry, the Greeks may have initially perceived mounted warriors as a
single, fearsome being—man and horse fused in motion and identity (Schmitt,
2001).
%20by%20Maspero,%20Sayce,%20and%20McClure%20WM_(14783417153).jpg) |
Mounted Cimmerians and their dogs battling Greek infantry 7th century BCE - History of Egypt, Chaldea, Syria, Babylonia and Assyria (1903) by Maspero, Sayce, and McClure
courtesy of Wikimedia Commons |
Out of this perceptual shock and mythic inheritance emerged
the centaur: not just a monster of the wilds, but a mirror reflecting the Greek
struggle to define humanity’s place between reason and instinct, control and
chaos, the polis and the wilderness. The centaur’s dual nature invites us to
explore not only cross-cultural influence and historical encounter, but also
the enduring psychological tension at the heart of human self-conception (Padilla,
1998).
By the time Homer penned the Iliad, the admiration
for a noble warrior like Hector who is proclaimed a “tamer of horses” (hippodamios)
(Homer, trans. Lattimore, 1951, 6.403) is already codified in the epic
tradition. Troy itself, situated near the Hittite frontier and possibly a point
of contact between Anatolian and steppe cultures, becomes a liminal setting in
the Greek mythic landscape—a place where Eastern and Western values, practices,
and fears collide (Bryce, 2006).
,_Turkey_(7446656654)%20artist's%20imagination%20courtesy%20of%20Carole%20Raddato.jpg) |
Early 20th century artist's concept of Troy
courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor Carole Raddato |
The repeated emphasis on horse-taming in the
epic hints at both admiration and anxiety: the horse as a symbol of
civilization and nobility, but also of barely contained power. In this charged
cultural space, the centaur emerged as a figure who could straddle these
contradictions—half-civilized, half-wild; half-admirable, half-threatening.
While no permanent Greek colonies existed along the Black
Sea coast during the time traditionally associated with the Trojan War, there
is strong evidence that Mycenaean Greeks were already traversing the Hellespont
and exploring the northern Aegean and beyond. Some scholars argue that the true
cause of the Trojan War may have been economic rather than romantic—namely, the
Trojans' control of the narrow straits of the Hellespont (modern Dardanelles)
and their imposition of tolls or restrictions on maritime trade. This strategic
chokepoint linked the Aegean with the Black Sea and would have given Troy
significant leverage over seaborne commerce.
Archaeological evidence supports this interpretation: Troy
VI/VIIa (c. 1700–1190 BCE) was a large, fortified, and evidently prosperous
city, ideally positioned to monitor and profit from passing ships (Easton,
2002). At the same time, the Mycenaean Greeks had compelling economic
motivations to access the Black Sea region, seeking timber, metals, grain, and
amber—resources not readily available in the Aegean. Even in the absence of
established colonies which would not appear until the 7th century BCE (Sherratt,
2003), such trade ventures suggest that Greek seafarers could have encountered
nomadic horse-riding cultures of the Eurasian steppe earlier than previously
assumed.
These early encounters—filtered through the lens of both
economic rivalry and developing allegory—may have contributed to the
development of the centaur as a figure born from a collision of worldviews: the
maritime civilization of the Aegean and the equestrian nomadism of the northern
frontier. The perceptual blurring between man and beast likely left an imprint
on Greek imagination, where unfamiliar realities were often interpreted through
the lens of myth. The idea of a being that was neither fully human nor fully
animal, yet profoundly dangerous and strangely noble, fits neatly into the
liminal category already prepared by Near Eastern hybrid figures like the
sphinx or griffin (Burkert, 1985). In this way, the centaur became not merely a
fantastical monster of Greek invention but a culturally encoded response to
real encounters—both hostile and admiring—with horse-riding peoples who lay
beyond the fringes of the Aegean world. As this imagery entered the mythic
tradition, the centaur came to symbolize a primal duality: a creature born of
borderlands—geographical, cultural, and psychological—where civilization meets
its limits.
In Greek tradition, the centaurs were most commonly
associated with Thessaly, a rugged and mountainous region in northern Greece
known for its wild landscapes and its skilled horsemen (Larson, 2007).
Thessaly’s plains made it one of the few areas in mainland Greece suitable for
large-scale horse breeding, and its reputation for horsemanship endured
throughout antiquity. At the same time, Thessaly was often imagined by southern
Greeks as a place somewhat removed from the refined urban centers of the
Aegean—a borderland both geographically and culturally. In myth, this
peripheral quality became magnified: the untamed forests and craggy highlands
of Mount Pelion, in particular, were thought to be the dwelling place of the
centaurs. This setting, remote yet real, gave mythic centaurs a liminal home on
the fringes of the known Greek world.
 |
Neck amphora depicting three centaurs by Polyphemos group 540- 530 BCE
courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. |
It also situated them close to other figures of transition
and, subsequently, tutelage—such as the wise centaur Chiron, who lived on Mount
Pelion and trained young heroes. By the eighth century BCE, Hesiod had even
given voice to Chiron in his fragmentary didactic poem, “Precepts of Chiron” (Hesiod,
frag. 1, trans. 2007).
 |
The wise centaur Chiron, holding a young Achilles, greets Peleus, black figure neck amphora by the Antimenes painter dated from 520-510 BCE now in the collections of the Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, Maryland.
|
Thus, Thessaly became both the cradle of centaur myth and a
symbolic threshold where wilderness, civilization, and the ambiguities between
them could play out. Likewise, the figure of the centaur fractured into
contrasting archetypes: on one end, the wild and uncivilized band of Thessalian
centaurs who crash the wedding of Pirithous (Pausanias, 5.10.8), a Lapith king
and close friend of Theseus.  |
| A centauromachy relief on an ancient Roman sarcophagus, c 150 CE, at the Museo Archeologico Ostiense courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor, Sailko. |
Drunk and disorderly, they attempted to abduct the bride and her attendants—an allegory of unchecked appetite and the perils of failing to master one's instincts. This mythic battle, known as the Centauromachy, was vividly portrayed by sculptors influenced by Pheidias on the Parthenon and the Temple of Zeus at Olympia.  |
| A centaur from the Temple of Zeus courtesy of the Archaeological Museum of Olympia |
On the other end stands Chiron,
the wise and gentle healer and tutor. This divergence within centaur myth may
reflect the Greeks' own ambivalence about the boundary between the cultivated
and the wild. The same creature that embodies violence, lust, and lawlessness
in one context can, in another, symbolize wisdom and self-mastery. Through this
duality, centaurs became a flexible moral mirror, capable of reflecting both
the chaos that threatens the polis and the idealized virtues that sustain it.Unlike his wild and impulsive kin—who were often portrayed
as drunken, violent, and given to unchecked passions—Chiron represented a
striking departure. Said to be the son of the Titan Cronus and a nymph named
Philyra, Chiron was not only immortal but also wise, kind, and skilled in
medicine, music, and prophecy. His home on Mount Pelion became a center of
heroic education, where some of the greatest figures in Greek myth—Achilles,
Asclepius, Jason, and even Heracles—were entrusted to his care (Apollodorus,
1.8.1). Chiron embodied a more aspirational archetype—the potential for harmony
between the animal and the rational, the instinctual and the civilized (Dodds,
1951).
%20Pompeii%20Apollo,%20Chiron,%20and%20Aesclepius%20west%20wall%20of%20cubiculum%20TOPAZ%20SHARPN%20CROPD.jpg) |
A rare fresco of (L to R) Apollo, Chiron, and Asclepius from the west wall of a cubiculum in the
House of Regina Carolina (VIII 3,14) Pompeii, 1st century CE courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. |
His myth allowed the Greeks to explore what it might mean to
tame the wild not through domination but through guidance and transformation.
Centaurs began to appear in Greek art during the Geometric
period (c. 900–700 BCE), initially in small-scale figurines and painted
pottery, often shown as fierce and untamed but depicted in an awkward composite
form sometimes called the “two-bodied” or “two-legged” centaur type with a
human torso joined at the waist to the hindquarters of a horse.
 |
| Terracotta neck amphora depicting centaurs 575–550 BCE by the Paris Painter courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. |
As Greek trade with
cultures of the Levant and Asia Minor began in earnest during the late 8th to
early 7th century BCE, Greek artists’ exposure to anatomically integrated
hybrid creatures may have encouraged Greek artists to reimagine centaurs as
more cohesive, four-legged creatures familiar from later classical and
Hellenistic art (Boardman, 1975), rather than cobbled-together parts.
 | | Terracotta fragment of a kylix (drinking cup) depicting a satyr late 6th early 5th centuries BCE Greek courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York |
|  | | Terracotta neck amphora depicting centaurs beating the lapith Kaineus into the ground 510 BCE courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art |
|
Their
representations became even more elaborate during the Archaic period (c.
700–480 BCE), when narrative scenes from myth gained prominence in vase
painting and sculpture. Furthermore, the black-figure technique, which developed
and flourished in the 6th century BCE, allowed for greater detail and dynamism,
making the more complicated four-legged form both feasible and desirable (Beazley,
1956). The four-legged version allowed artists to emphasize centaur strength,
animalistic frenzy, and their contrast to human heroes, especially in large
friezes like temple decorations of the Temple of Apollo at Thermon and Parthenon
metopes of the 5th century BCE (Ridgway, 1997).
The move from the awkward, transitional two-legged form to
the fully animalistic four-legged form may reflect a growing Greek concern with
the duality of human and beast, civilization and savagery, reflecting the
maturing of Greek philosophy and ethical thought, where the centaur becomes a
potent symbol of the struggle between rationality and instinct (Burkert, 1985;
Hurwit, 2002).
Timeline of Greek Colonization of the Black Sea region:
- c.
750–700 BCE – Earliest forays by Ionian and Aeolian Greeks, with
initial trading posts and exploratory expeditions (Boardman, 1999; Graham,
2001).
- Late
7th century BCE – Establishment of permanent colonies begins (Graham,
2001).
- By
mid-6th century BCE – Colonization is well underway; many of the major
poleis have been founded (Boardman, 1999).
🔹 Key Colonies Founded:
- Sinope
(modern Sinop, Turkey) – Founded by Miletus in the 7th century BCE (Boardman,
1999).
- Olbia
(near modern Mykolaiv, Ukraine) – Founded by Miletus around 647 BCE (Graham,
2001).
- Panticapaeum
(modern Kerch, Crimea) – Also a Milesian colony, founded in the 6th
century BCE (Boardman, 1999).
- Phasis
(modern Poti, Georgia) – Founded near the mouth of the Phasis River,
possibly late 7th–early 6th century BCE (Graham, 2001).
Historical Influence triggering Artistic Change?
This colonization brought the Greeks into direct contact
with:
- Scythian
and Thracian tribes, known for their horsemanship and equestrian
culture (Ivantchik, 2006).
- A landscape
of open steppes and horse-rich cultures, which may have
influenced Greek conceptualizations of horse-human hybrids like centaurs (Burkert,
1985; Ivantchik, 2006).
It’s plausible that this new exposure to mounted nomadic
peoples—who were highly skilled riders and often regarded by the Greeks as
“barbaric” and wild—may have sharpened the symbolic role of centaurs. The more
realistic four-legged form could reflect both increased equestrian knowledge
and a desire to make centaurs more physically credible and narratively potent (Hurwit,
2002).
This contact also coincides with the transition from the
Archaic to the Early Classical period, when Greek artists made huge strides in
naturalism and anatomical accuracy—suggesting that artistic trends and cultural
encounters worked in tandem to transform centaur imagery (Boardman, 1975;
Hurwit, 2002).
Chiron, distinct among his kind, was frequently marked out
by signs of civility: he might be clothed, bearded, crowned with a wreath, or
accompanied by young heroes under his instruction (Beazley, 1956). These visual
cues allowed artists and audiences to recognize him not merely as a centaur,
but as a paragon of wisdom set apart from his more barbaric brethren.
Chiron's emergence as a distinctive figure in Greek visual
culture can be traced to Attic black-figure vase painting of the late Archaic
period. One of the earliest securely identified images of Chiron appears on a
black-figure amphora attributed to the Amasis Painter (active c. 560–525 BCE),
where he is shown leading the young Achilles. Chiron’s civility is emphasized
in such scenes by his clothed upper body, his calm demeanor, and often by the
presence of musical instruments or medicinal herbs—attributes that signal his
role as a cultured educator. The François Vase, a masterwork by Kleitias (c.
570 BCE), includes another notable depiction: Chiron escorts Achilles to the
court of Peleus, again highlighting the centaur’s role in heroic upbringing (Hurwit,
2002).
 |
Attic black-figured volute krater known as the Francois vase 570-565 BCE painted by Kleitias
courtesy of Wikimedia Commons |
Sanctuaries dedicated to healing and hero cults—such as those at Delphi,
Thermopylae, and Epidaurus—occasionally featured representations of Chiron in
their sculptural programs or votive offerings, especially in later periods when
his association with medicine became more prominent. Through these visual
narratives, Chiron was increasingly isolated from the more violent and
impulsive centaurs of Thessalian myth, emerging as a tutelary figure whose
animal form belied a profoundly civilized spirit.
As Greek artistic and mythological traditions spread
westward, the centaur was readily adopted and reimagined by the Etruscans, the
dominant culture of central Italy prior to the rise of Republican Rome.
Etruscan artists were deeply influenced by Greek iconography but often
repurposed it to suit local tastes and religious beliefs. In their visual
culture, centaurs retained their identity as hybrid creatures of the wild but
were often given new symbolic roles. They appear in funerary art, engraved on
bronze mirrors and carved into tomb reliefs, where they may represent liminal
figures between life and death or act as guardians of the underworld journey (de
Grummond, 2006).
 |
Centaur (Chiron?) on an Etruscan amphora dated to 530 BCE courtesy of
Wikimedia Commons |
Occasionally, Chiron is named in inscriptions, suggesting that
the Etruscans were aware of his myth and may have appreciated his role as a
healer and guide. Yet in general, the Etruscan centaur occupies a more
ambiguous space—neither strictly Greek nor yet fully Roman, a transitional
figure in both form and meaning.  |
Etruscan bronze mirror depicting Icarius in a chariot drawn by two bearded centaurs—one bearing grapes, the other a knife and wineskin—accompanied by a cherub above and his dog Maera below. This rare illustration combines text and imagery to portray a lesser-known episode of Greek myth, where Icarius, taught by Dionysos to make wine, is killed by drunken shepherds who mistake his gift for poison (Photius, Myriobiblon 190).
Note: Iucarius (spelled here with “iu” to distinguish him from Icarus, the son of Daedalus) is the mortal hero associated with the introduction of wine to Attica. Taught by Dionysos, Iucarius was killed by shepherds who mistook the effects of wine for poisoning. His story, involving his daughter Erigone and loyal dog Maera, played a key role in early Athenian rites connected to Dionysian cult worship. |
This interpretive flexibility paved the way
for a more decorative and symbolic use of the centaur in Roman visual culture,
especially in connection with themes of festivity, transformation, and ecstatic
release (Kampen, 2005).
Centaurs in Transition — Two Forms in Bronze
Two Etruscan bronze figurines—each depicting a centaur—illustrate the shift in anatomical conception that occurred around the turn of the 6th to 5th century BCE. The earlier example (c. 560–540 BCE, MFA Boston) retains the so-called “two-bodied” or “two-legged” type, where the human torso, with a full set of human legs, is attached to a horse’s hindquarters. This awkward hybrid form reflects the early Greek visual tradition, which struggled to reconcile the anatomical merger of man and horse.
By contrast, a later bronze statuette (late 6th–early 5th century BCE, Met Museum) presents a more unified four-legged anatomy, in which the human torso rises naturally from the front of a complete equine body. This shift toward anatomical plausibility mirrors broader trends in Greek and Etruscan art, which increasingly favored realism, proportionality, and expressive action—especially in mythological narratives involving hybrid or liminal beings.
Together, these figures not only demonstrate the evolving form of the centaur but also suggest a growing sophistication in how artists visualized myth across the Mediterranean.
__________________________________________________________________________________
By the Hellenistic period, and even more prominently under Roman
rule, centaurs underwent a visual and symbolic transformation as they were
increasingly absorbed into Dionysiac imagery. No longer limited to mythological
narratives or heroic training scenes, they now appeared in bacchic processions—frolicking,
wine-soaked followers of Dionysus, the god of ecstasy, revelry, and the
dissolution of boundaries. These centaurs, often shown playing flutes, carrying
amphorae, or cavorting with maenads and satyrs, embodied the loss of rational
control in favor of instinct, indulgence, and liberation (Boardman, 1991;
Schreiber, 2019).
Evolution of Centaur Imagery and Meaning Across Periods
|
Period
|
Visual Characteristics
|
Symbolic Function
|
|
Archaic (c. 700–480 BCE)
|
Stylized and geometric forms; “two-legged” centaur type
common; depicted in black-figure vase painting.
|
Represented chaotic, barbaric violence; moral allegories
(e.g., Centauromachy) highlighting civilizing values {Boardman, 1975;
Shapiro, 1993).
|
|
Classical (c. 480–323 BCE)
|
Greater naturalism in anatomy; dynamic reliefs on temples
(e.g., Parthenon, Olympia).
|
Centaur figures become metaphors for the struggle between
reason and impulse; clear division between wild centaurs and noble Chiron (Hurwit,
2002; Stewart, 1990).
|
|
Hellenistic (c. 323–31 BCE)
|
Emotional intensity and pathos emphasized; centaurs appear
in more diverse contexts.
|
Centaurs integrated into Dionysian imagery; depicted in
roles tied to revelry, eroticism, and excess. (Zanker, 1988; LIMC s.v. Kentauros).
|
|
Roman Imperial (1st c. BCE – 4th c. CE)
|
Mosaics and frescoes in domestic and elite spaces;
realistic, often expressive renderings.
|
Dual roles: violent or hedonistic centaurs (e.g.,
Hadrian's Villa) and cultured Chiron as tutor (e.g., Pompeii, Herculaneum) (Clarke,
1991; Zanker, 1988).
|
Artists emphasized their muscular bodies and expressive
gestures, creating dynamic compositions in mosaics, sarcophagi, and frescoes,
especially in the villas and tombs of the Roman elite. In these Dionysian
contexts, the centaur’s hybrid nature became an emblem not of violence or
wisdom, but of ecstatic surrender—a creature no longer feared, but celebrated,
as part of the cycle of death, rebirth, and transcendence that Dionysus came to
represent in late antiquity (Zanker, 1990).
The Roman fascination with centaurs extended across
stylistic and symbolic registers, from scenes of Dionysian abandon to refined
moral allegories. At Hadrian’s Villa in Tivoli, a striking mosaic from the
early 2nd century CE shows centaurs struggling with large felines—a vivid
metaphor for untamed nature and internal conflict (Kuttner, 1995; Köhler, 2014).
These muscular, expressive figures blur the line between myth and exemplum,
caught in a perpetual battle between reason and impulse.
 |
| Four-legged centaur battling ferocious felines in a mosaic from Hadrian’s Villa in Tivoli, reflecting the emperor’s lifelong love of hunting and his worldview of the empire’s constant threat from primal violence. Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor Anagoria. |
In contrast, Roman wall painting—especially in Pompeii and
Herculaneum—frequently depicted the gentler figure of Chiron instructing the
young Achilles. One of the most celebrated examples appears in the Augusteum at
Herculaneum, a building associated with the imperial cult. There, Chiron is
shown serenely teaching Achilles to play the lyre, his white beard, cloak, and
composed posture reinforcing his civilizing influence. Such scenes reflect
Roman ideals of elite education, moral discipline, and the transmission of
cultural authority to future leaders (Coarelli, 2002; Theoi Project, n.d.). |
| Fresco depicting the wise tutor Chiron instructing Achilles in music found in the Augusteum in Herculaneum, 1st century CE courtesy of Wikimedia Commons |
his juxtaposition—between Chiron’s tutelage and the primal
violence of the Tivoli centaurs—highlights the remarkable plasticity of centaur
imagery in Roman art. During the Augustan era, the iconography of Chiron
instructing Achilles reflected the regime's emphasis on education, discipline,
and the moral formation of Rome’s future leaders—ideals foundational to
Augustus’ vision of a restored Republic under imperial guidance (Zanker, 1988).
By contrast, the Hadrianic mosaics of feral centaurs battling beasts in
Dionysian revel suggest a more ambivalent, even introspective, engagement with
myth. Hadrian, born in Italica on the Spanish frontier and widely traveled
across the empire, experienced firsthand the cultural instability of Rome’s
borders and the fragility of civilization beyond the Mediterranean core
(Boatwright, 2008; Syme, 1964). His mosaic program, therefore, may reflect a
shift in imperial ideology—from the calming narratives of moral order favored
by Augustus to a philosophical confrontation with chaos, mortality, and the
limits of control. That Hadrian so prominently displayed scenes of hunting and
mythic violence—across reliefs, statuary, and even poetic accounts of lion
hunts (Opper, 2008, p. 173; Fox, 2006, p. 574)—underscores his preoccupation
with the balance between cultivated restraint and the primal forces always
threatening to overwhelm it.
Hadrian’s villa was not merely a personal retreat but a
curated stage upon which imperial ideology, mythic imagination, and
philosophical reflection coalesced. Its very architecture—fusing Roman
engineering prowess with Hellenistic aesthetics—embodied Hadrian’s complex
vision of empire: one that balanced cultivated order with a conscious embrace
of wildness and ambiguity (Birley, 1997; Boatwright, 2008). The centaur
mosaics, far from decorative ephemera, acted as mythological mirrors of
imperial identity, negotiating tensions between discipline and indulgence,
control and chaos. In choosing the violent, ecstatic centaurs of Dionysian myth
over the pedagogical calm of Chiron, Hadrian reframed the imperial gaze—not as
a civilizing force alone, but as one constantly contending with the primal
forces that lurk at the empire’s edge and within the human soul. This layered
visual language invited elite viewers not just to admire, but to interpret,
reflect, and perhaps even recognize themselves within these ancient, ambivalent
figures.
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