Is the fresco identifed as Artemis and Callisto in the House of Cornelius Diadumenus (VII 12,26) really a depiction of Aeneas and Dido as Lawrence Richardson Jr. suspected?

 by Mary Harrsch © 2024

In my examination of frescos depicting Dido and Aeneas, I came across a painting that was identified as Artemis and Callisto in the House of Cornelius Diadumenus (VII 12,26) but pompeiiinpictures.com pointed out was suspected of being Dido and Aeneas by American classicist Lawrence Richardson Jr. With this in mind I studied the fresco more closely and I think Richardson is correct.

House of Cornelius Diadumenus (VII 12,26) Pompeii Found on west wall in triclinium room on left hand side behind atrium traditionally identified as Artemis and Callisto

House of Cornelius Diadumenus (VII 12,25) Pompeii Drawing by Nicola La Volpe, of painting of Artemis and Callisto or Dido and Aeneas from the central panel of the west wall of triclinium

The figure on the left is depicting a male. The figure on the right is a crowned female sitting on a throne with Cupid appearing to be urging her toward a romantic relationship. In the background is a noblewoman as denoted by her simple ribbon diadem. The two figures in the background on the right are two attendants of the queen (as in the depiction of Dido in the fresco from the House of Meleager.) I think the Dido figure was confused with Artemis because there is a quiver and an arrow on the left side of Dido on the ground. But I think these objects are meant to foreshadow the coming royal hunt devised by Venus and Juno to bring the lovers together.

ChatGPT explains: "In Book IV of the Aeneid, Dido organizes a royal hunt, which becomes a pivotal event in her relationship with Aeneas. The hunt begins as a public display of leadership and unity but quickly turns into a private, fateful encounter between Dido and Aeneas.

"During the hunt, a storm sent by Juno scatters the group, and Dido and Aeneas are led to a cave where their love affair begins. This moment marks a turning point: Dido’s passion for Aeneas becomes consuming, leading her to neglect her duties as queen, which ultimately contributes to her downfall.

Symbolism of Hunting in Dido’s Story:

"Pursuit and Vulnerability: In classical literature, hunting often symbolizes pursuit, whether literal or metaphorical. Dido, who initially appears as a strong and independent queen, becomes metaphorically "hunted" by fate, the gods, and her emotions. Aeneas, too, can be seen as a "hunter" in the sense that his presence disrupts her carefully constructed life.

"The imagery of the hunt reflects the inevitability of her tragedy. Just as a hunter ultimately claims their prey, Dido is ensnared by her love for Aeneas, manipulated by divine forces, and ultimately abandoned. Her role shifts from a figure of power to one of vulnerability, highlighting the cruel forces of fate and duty.

"In a deeper sense, Dido's story mirrors the structure of a hunt, with her initial strength as queen (the hunter) transforming into her tragic role as the prey of love, divine will, and political necessity.

"In Roman frescoes, hunting motifs are often associated with themes of leadership, prowess, and conquest. If Dido is ever depicted in a hunting context in visual art, it may serve as a metaphor for her strength as a ruler or as a foreshadowing of her vulnerability. For instance, a queen in a hunting scene could symbolize mastery over her domain, but it might also suggest her eventual "capture" by love and fate.

"In conclusion, Dido’s association with hunting in the Aeneid is rich with symbolism, portraying her as both a commanding leader and a tragic figure ensnared by forces beyond her control. The hunt becomes a metaphor for her inner conflict, blending themes of love, power, and destiny into her narrative arc."

The other noble lady with the simple ribbon diadem in the scene could be Anna, Dido's sister. Anna is Dido's confidante and adviser in Virgil's Aeneid. She encourages Dido's union with Aeneas, hoping it will strengthen Carthage politically and emotionally heal her sister. Including Anna would emphasize the familial bonds and counsel that shaped Dido's actions, making her a key supporting figure in the drama.

ChatGPT points out: "A simple diadem could signify Anna's noble status as the sister of a queen. It would elevate her visually to reflect her importance in the narrative and her close connection to Dido.

"Anna’s role as Dido’s confidante and adviser aligns well with her presence in a scene of Dido and Aeneas, particularly if the fresco depicts a moment of counsel or dramatic interaction."

I pointed out Anna is separated from the other two attendants and between Aeneas and Dido with the Cupid figure in the foreground representing the sister's efforts to bring the couple together.

ChatGPT explains: "Anna’s position between Dido and Aeneas is a clear visual cue that she is attempting to bridge the gap between the two. In the Aeneid, Anna actively encourages Dido to embrace her love for Aeneas, believing it to be politically advantageous and personally fulfilling for her sister.

"The physical separation between Anna and the other attendants emphasizes her elevated status and unique role in the drama—she is not merely a passive courtly figure but an active participant in the emotional and political dynamics.

Cupid as a Symbol of Anna’s Role:

"The Cupid figure appealing to Dido could represent Anna’s persuasion to bring Dido and Aeneas together. In Roman art, Cupid often symbolizes the divine or emotional forces driving love. His inclusion might reinforce Anna’s argument that the union between Dido and Aeneas is fated or divinely inspired, a key point in the narrative.

Dido’s Position and Response:

"Dido’s seated posture on the throne and her crowned head affirm her status as queen, yet her body language might suggest contemplation, hesitation, or internal conflict. This aligns with her torn feelings between duty to her people and love for Aeneas.

"The throne also serves to ground her in Carthage’s political realm, while the appeals of Anna and Cupid attempt to pull her toward a personal, emotional decision.

Anna as a Foreshadowing Figure:

"If Anna’s placement highlights her advocacy for Dido’s love, it also tragically foreshadows her unwitting role in Dido’s downfall. In supporting the relationship, Anna becomes an instrument of the divine plan that ultimately leads to Dido’s despair and death.

The Artistic and Symbolic Harmony:

"The placement of the figures, combined with their attributes and gestures, creates a layered narrative where personal, political, and divine forces converge. Anna, as both a loyal sister and a persuasive intermediary, is pivotal to this dynamic, and her visual separation from the attendants reinforces her unique narrative function...the Cupid figure amplifies this interpretation, adding depth to Anna’s role as a symbolic and literal advocate for the union. This scene masterfully intertwines the personal tragedy of Dido with the broader themes of duty and destiny, making Anna's central placement even more meaningful."

As for the fresco's interpretation as Artemis and Callisto, ChatGPT thinks the presence of a male figure poses a significant challenge to the Artemis-Callisto interpretation.

"In myths, Callisto's story is typically portrayed as a conflict between Artemis and Callisto, with no significant role for a male figure in their interactions...Callisto was punished by Artemis for her pregnancy after Zeus’s seduction, but this scene is typically shown in visual art as one of discovery or chastisement—not as a seated dialogue or council.

"The presence of the quiver and arrow on the ground beside the seated female figure could indeed symbolize the royal hunt mentioned in the Aeneid. This hunt, orchestrated by Venus and Juno, serves as a pivotal moment for Dido and Aeneas’ burgeoning romance.

"In contrast, if the scene were Artemis and Callisto, the quiver would typically be in Artemis’s possession as a sign of her dominion over the hunt. The fact that it is placed on the ground could suggest a symbolic rather than literal presence, tying it to the hunt as a narrative device."

I pointed out to ChatGPT that it mentioned the owner of the House of Cornelius Diadumenus was probably owned by a freedman of Greek descent based on his name. So I asked, "How does a prominent image depicting a scene from the Aeneid change the suggestion of the owner's character, education, or social status?

ChatGPT replied: "The presence of a prominent fresco depicting a scene from Virgil’s Aeneid in a home like the House of Cornelius Diadumenus provides fascinating insights into the character, education, and social ambitions of its owner. Here's how this detail might adjust our understanding of the owner's identity and cultural standing:

Aspirations of Roman Identity

"The choice of a theme from the Aeneid, the foundational epic of Roman identity, suggests that the owner sought to associate himself with the cultural values of Rome.

"If Cornelius Diadumenus was a freedman of Greek descent, this fresco could reflect an intentional effort to project integration into Roman society. Freedmen often used public displays of Roman culture in their homes to emphasize their loyalty to Rome and their acceptance of its ideals.

Demonstration of Education and Sophistication

"The Aeneid was a cornerstone of Roman education and literature. By commissioning a fresco depicting Dido and Aeneas, the owner demonstrated familiarity with one of Rome's most revered texts, signaling his literary sophistication.

"For a freedman, literacy and knowledge of elite Roman literature were powerful markers of upward mobility. This fresco may suggest that Cornelius Diadumenus was an educated individual, aware of the cultural importance of Virgil’s work and eager to showcase it in his home.

Social and Political Messaging

"The Aeneid is steeped in themes of duty, piety (pietas), and the sacrifices necessary for greatness. A scene featuring Dido and Aeneas reflects a key moment in the narrative: Aeneas must choose duty over love, abandoning Dido to fulfill his destiny as the founder of Rome.

"The display of such a story could indicate that the owner sought to align himself with these virtues, subtly promoting his loyalty to Rome and an understanding of the empire’s mythic origins. It could also symbolize sacrifices the owner made in his own life to achieve freedom and status.

Statement of Wealth and Artistic Patronage

"High-quality frescoes, especially those depicting complex mythological or literary scenes, were not inexpensive. Commissioning such art would demonstrate the owner’s economic resources and ability to engage skilled artisans, reflecting his status within Pompeii’s social hierarchy.

"A freedman owning an elegant home with richly decorated rooms, including a fresco based on Virgil, signifies a desire to emulate the tastes and lifestyles of the Roman elite.

Connection to Greek and Roman Fusion

"If Cornelius Diadumenus was of Greek descent, his inclusion of a Roman epic scene could also reflect the cultural blending of Greek and Roman traditions. Greeks in the Roman Empire often embraced Roman myths and literature while retaining elements of their own heritage.

"The Aeneid itself has strong ties to Greek epic traditions (e.g., Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey), and the depiction of Dido and Aeneas could serve as a nod to this shared literary heritage, appealing to both Greek and Roman audiences.

Entertaining and Impressing Guests

"Homes in Pompeii often used elaborate decorations to impress visitors and reflect the owner’s values and identity. This fresco, likely located in a prominent room such as a triclinium (dining room) or atrium, would have served as a conversation piece, allowing the owner to display his knowledge of Roman literature and cultural sophistication to guests.

"The specific scene of Dido and Aeneas may have resonated with themes of hospitality and the dynamics of love and duty, making it a fitting subject for a space where social gatherings occurred.

Challenges to Traditional Roman Hierarchies

"Freedmen like Cornelius Diadumenus were often wealthy and influential but faced societal prejudice due to their origins. By prominently displaying a scene from a Roman literary masterpiece, the owner might have been subtly challenging the idea of cultural exclusivity, asserting that freedmen could participate in and contribute to elite Roman culture.

Conclusion

"This fresco elevates our understanding of Cornelius Diadumenus as a person who likely sought to bridge his background with Roman ideals, using art as a medium to articulate his aspirations, education, and loyalty. It reinforces the idea that freedmen in Pompeii were active participants in Roman cultural life, not merely passive adopters of elite tastes, but contributors with nuanced understandings of myth, literature, and art. Such a scene also emphasizes how mythological imagery served not only as decoration but as a deliberate statement of identity and ambition."

Then I asked, "Since the Aeneid was published during the reign of Augustus and Virgil was recognized as patronized by the emperor, could this be an overt attempt to identify the owner of the house with Augustus' policies? Could it point to Diadumenus as a member of the Augustales?"

ChatGPT replied: "Your suggestion that the fresco of Dido and Aeneas in the House of Cornelius Diadumenus might align the owner with Augustan policies and hint at his potential membership in the Augustales is compelling. Here’s how the connection might work:

Alignment with Augustan Ideals

"The Aeneid is intrinsically tied to Augustan propaganda, portraying Aeneas as a model of pietas (devotion to the gods, family, and Rome) and linking his journey to the eventual founding of Rome and Augustus' rule.

"By prominently displaying a scene from the Aeneid, particularly one involving Aeneas, the owner could be signaling support for Augustan ideals of duty, sacrifice, and Rome’s destiny, thereby aligning himself with the emperor’s cultural and political vision.

Membership in the Augustales

"The Augustales were a religious order of freedmen dedicated to the worship of the emperor and his family. These men often held positions of prominence within their communities and sought to emphasize their loyalty to Rome and Augustus as a means of gaining status and recognition.

"Displaying a fresco of Aeneas, a mythic figure closely tied to Augustus’ lineage (through the Julian claim to descent from Venus), could be interpreted as a deliberate assertion of loyalty to the imperial family.

"Membership in the Augustales would also provide Cornelius Diadumenus, a freedman, with a form of social legitimacy and prestige within Pompeian society. The fresco may reflect his engagement in imperial cult activities or his aspirations to belong to this elite group.

Symbol of Romanization and Social Integration

"Freedmen, especially those of Greek descent like Diadumenus, often adopted Roman cultural symbols to demonstrate their integration into Roman society.

By commissioning a fresco tied to the Aeneid, the owner would be showcasing his knowledge of Roman literature while signaling his participation in the broader cultural project of Romanization promoted by Augustus.

Wealth and the Augustales

"Membership in the Augustales required a certain level of wealth since members often funded public works, games, or festivals to honor the emperor. The presence of such a high-quality fresco suggests that Cornelius Diadumenus may have had the economic means to participate in this kind of public benefaction.

"If the house contained additional indications of wealth (e.g., elaborate decorations, fine dining areas), these could further support the hypothesis that the owner had the financial resources and social ambition typical of an Augustales member.

Augustus’ Policies in Pompeii

"Augustus actively promoted the Aeneid and its themes throughout the empire. In cities like Pompeii, his policies encouraged the display of loyalty to Roman values through art, literature, and public works.

"The choice of Dido and Aeneas, a story centered on love, destiny, and sacrifice, would resonate with Augustan themes, such as the importance of personal sacrifice for the greater good of Rome. Aeneas' eventual rejection of Dido for the sake of his divine mission mirrors Augustus’ emphasis on duty over personal desire.

An Augustales Connection

"The fresco’s inclusion of Cupid and its focus on Dido and Aeneas’ relationship may also hint at broader connections to Augustus. Cupid’s role as a symbol of love and divine intervention links to Augustus’ propagation of his divine lineage through Venus.

"If Diadumenus was a member of the Augustales, this imagery could also serve as a personal statement of his role in supporting the imperial family, especially since the cult was heavily involved in promoting Augustus' divine status and legacy.

Conclusion: The Augustales Hypothesis

"While there is no direct evidence linking Cornelius Diadumenus to the Augustales, the fresco’s themes strongly align with imperial ideology and Augustan values. Its presence in the home of a wealthy freedman suggests an intentional effort to reflect loyalty to Rome and Augustus.

"The Aeneid’s widespread cultural significance during Augustus’ reign makes the fresco a plausible symbol of the owner’s desire to be associated with Roman ideals and perhaps an aspiration or acknowledgment of his status as an Augustales member.

"Further supporting evidence, such as inscriptions or additional iconography in the house, would strengthen this interpretation. However, even without it, the fresco underscores the owner's deep engagement with Augustan-era cultural narratives."

I'll explore additional iconography in the house and its relationship to this fresco in my next post!

If you enjoyed this post, never miss out on future posts by following me by email!

Do frescos in the House of Meleager emphasizing themes of duty and destiny along with treasure reaped point to a military master of the house?

by Mary Harrsch © 2024 

As I continue to study the frescos from Pompeii reproduced by 19th century artist, Henri Roux, I came upon his painting that he labeled Europe, Asia, and Africa but scholars have identified as Dido abandoned by Aeneas from the House of Meleager. I thought it interesting that in this scene, Dido is not weeping as Aeneas' ship is shown sailing away, but looking resentfully at the personification of Africa (indicated by the figure's elephantine headdress). I realize this interpretation relies heavily on how accurately Dido's facial expression was captured by Roux, then reproduced by the lithographer, but it would be consistent with Dido's anguish at having to choose between her responsibilities as queen of the Carthaginians and her love for Aeneas who has torn himself away from her to fulfill his own divinely ordained destiny.

Fresco entitled Europe, Asia, and Africa (actually Dido abandoned by Aeneas) from House of Meleager (VI 9,2) in Pompeii  by Henri Roux lithography by Raoul Rochette

House of Meleager (VI 9,2) Pompeii Atrium original wall painting of the abandoned Dido seated on a throne surrounded by maids

Reviewing other frescos throughout the large elite home, I noticed that scenes of Mars and Venus appear three times and there are multiple images of either Venus or an identified female gazing at jewelry-filled boxes sometimes proffered by Cupid but not in each instance. The number of images that seemed to me to emphasize duty and sacrifice in combination with those multiple scenes of Mars and Venus and boxes of treasure made me wonder if the owner of the very large home was a successful military commander.

Henri Roux's reproduction of House of Meleager VI 9,2 Wall painting of Mars and Venus with two cupids who hold the god’s helmet and the goddess’ box from tablinum room 8 (pompeiiinpictures floorplan)

House of Meleager VI 9,2 original wall painting of Mars and Venus with two cupids who hold the god’s helmet and the goddess’ box from tablinum room 8 (pompeiiinpictures floorplan)

House of Meleager VI 9,2 original wall painting of Venus with Cupid and a jewelry box

I asked ChatGPT about the possibility and it replied:

"The recurring depictions of Mars and Venus, along with scenes of Venus or an unspecified woman with jewelry or jewelry boxes, in the House of Meleager could indeed carry symbolic significance that aligns with the interpretation of the owner as a military commander who celebrates both martial success and its rewards. Let’s explore this idea:

"Mars and Venus in Mythology: Mars (the god of war) and Venus (the goddess of love and beauty) are often depicted as lovers in Roman mythology, symbolizing the union of opposing forces: war and peace, destruction and creation, masculinity and femininity.

"Their union is thought to represent a harmonious balance, suggesting that war (Mars) ultimately brings about stability, peace, and prosperity (Venus).

"Message in Domestic Contexts: In elite Roman homes, depictions of Mars and Venus could celebrate the homeowner's martial prowess while highlighting the rewards of victory: wealth, luxury, and domestic bliss.

"The murals may convey the idea that the homeowner (aligned with Mars) has not only achieved success in warfare but also brought these spoils home, enriching and beautifying his domestic life (aligned with Venus).

Venus, Jewelry, and Wealth

Venus and Jewelry Boxes: "Venus is frequently associated with luxury, beauty, and adornment, symbolizing both sensuality and the wealth that comes from successful ventures.

"The imagery of Venus or a woman receiving jewelry (often depicted with Cupid assisting) could symbolize love, marital harmony, and the spoils of victory brought by the male head of the household.

"Victory Spoils: In Roman society, military victories often resulted in the acquisition of treasures, which were used to display the wealth and status of the victor.

"Jewelry and luxurious goods were common symbols of this wealth and would have been appropriate gifts to wives or symbols of the family’s elevated status.

Military Commander as Patron

"Evidence of Martial Identity: If the owner of the House of Meleager were a military commander, these murals could serve as a subtle yet powerful assertion of his identity.

"Mars, as a symbol of military success, would represent the owner himself, while Venus would embody the rewards of that success in the form of wealth, beauty, and a harmonious household.

"Public and Private Messages: In a prominent house like this one, the decorations would have conveyed messages to visitors in both public and semi-private spaces.

"The atrium and tablinum, where such murals might have been placed, would emphasize the owner’s accomplishments and virtues, blending martial and domestic ideals.

Alternative Interpretations

"While the imagery could suggest a military background, other interpretations are also plausible:

"Venus as the Patroness of Pompeii: Venus was the tutelary deity of Pompeii (Venus Pompeiana), and her repeated presence in the house may also reflect local religious devotion or civic pride.

"Celebration of Love and Prosperity: "The emphasis on Venus and jewelry might symbolize love, fertility, and prosperity within the household rather than directly referencing martial success.

Conclusion

"The combination of Mars and Venus murals and the depictions of Venus with jewelry strongly suggests an aspirational narrative of wealth, success, and harmony in the House of Meleager. If the owner was a military commander, these murals could symbolically celebrate his victories and the rewards they brought, elevating his status both within his household and in the eyes of visitors.

"However, the broader cultural significance of Venus in Pompeii and Roman domestic art means that these themes could also have carried multiple layers of meaning, blending personal achievement with civic identity and ideals."

Then I asked, "If the patron of the House of Meleager was a military commander would this effect the symbolism of the fresco of Dido abandoned by Aeneas?"

ChatGPT responded with: "If the patron of the House of Meleager were indeed a military commander, the symbolism of the fresco of Dido abandoned by Aeneas would take on additional layers of meaning that align with both the patron's personal identity and Roman cultural ideals. Here's how this interpretation might evolve:

Dido and Aeneas in the Roman Context

"Aeneas as the Model of Pietas (Duty): Aeneas is celebrated in Roman mythology as the embodiment of pietas—loyalty to the gods, the state, and family above personal desires.

"His decision to leave Dido, despite their love, was driven by his divine mission to found Rome. This act of duty over personal happiness would resonate with Roman military values, emphasizing sacrifice for the greater good.

"Dido’s Tragedy: While Dido’s despair and eventual suicide are central to her story, Roman audiences often interpreted her as a tragic figure, contrasting with Aeneas' virtuous dedication to his destiny.

"For a military patron, Dido’s grief could symbolize the cost of placing duty and state over personal attachments, a theme likely relatable to someone accustomed to the sacrifices demanded by military service.

Symbolism in the Fresco’s Placement

"Public Display of Values: The atrium, where this fresco was likely displayed, was a highly visible space for receiving guests. A depiction of Aeneas abandoning Dido could serve as a subtle declaration of the homeowner’s alignment with pietas, emphasizing loyalty to the gods, Rome, and one's mission over personal or romantic entanglements.

"This message would be especially relevant to a military commander, whose career would hinge on duty, discipline, and devotion to Rome.

"Emphasis on Leadership and Sacrifice: Aeneas' departure from Dido also symbolizes a leader’s responsibility to prioritize the welfare of their people and fulfill their divine or political mission, even at great personal cost.

"For a military patron, this could parallel the sacrifices made in service of Rome—leaving behind family, comfort, or personal ambitions for the greater good.

Dido as a Warning or Reflection

"Potential Warning: For a commander, the portrayal of Dido could also serve as a cautionary reminder of the consequences of forsaking duty. Her tragedy may underline what happens when emotions or personal desires interfere with a higher calling, contrasting sharply with Aeneas' triumph as a paragon of pietas.

"Reflection of Conquests: If the patron was a military leader involved in campaigns in North Africa or regions associated with Carthage, the depiction of Dido (a legendary Carthaginian queen) could hold additional geopolitical resonance, reflecting Roman dominance over their historical rival.

Link to Mars and Venus Themes in the House

"The repeated imagery of Mars and Venus in the house complements the fresco’s potential meaning:

"Mars and Aeneas: "As a military figure, Aeneas shares Mars' association with war and leadership. The fresco could reinforce a parallel between the homeowner and Aeneas, both embodying martial virtues and the burden of leadership.

"Venus and Dido: Venus, as Aeneas’ divine mother, contrasts with Dido, whose love for Aeneas ultimately leads to her downfall. This juxtaposition could highlight the patron's alignment with divine favor (Venus) and triumph, while Dido symbolizes the consequences of diverging from divine will.

Overall Interpretation

"If the patron were a military commander, the fresco of Dido abandoned by Aeneas would emphasize the primacy of duty and sacrifice—an ideal central to Roman military and civic values. The imagery would serve to:

"Reinforce the patron’s identity as a leader who upholds Rome’s ideals of pietas.

"Showcase the tension between personal desires and public duty, a theme relatable to those in service of the state.

"Potentially connect the patron’s military achievements to Roman mythology, aligning their personal narrative with the founding of Rome itself.

"This fresco, in combination with the Mars and Venus imagery, would create a cohesive visual narrative of martial success, divine favor, and the rewards and sacrifices of fulfilling one’s duty."

Then I pointed out the fresco is paired with a fresco of Hephaestus showing Achilles armor to Thetis and observed this appears to reinforce a martial theme as well.

House of Meleager (VI 9,2) Pompeii Room 2 of the atrium Wall painting of Hephaestus showing Thetis the weapons he has made for Achilles

House of Meleager (VI 9,2) Pompeii Room 2 Drawing by Giuseppe Marsigli,1830, of Hephaestos showing Achilles armor to Thetis

House of Meleager (VI 9,2) Pompeii Room 2 painting of Hephaestus showing Thetis the weapons he has made for Achilles

ChatGPT responded with "The pairing of the fresco of Dido abandoned by Aeneas with the scene of Hephaestus presenting Achilles' armor to Thetis strongly reinforces a martial theme, aligning with Roman ideals of warfare, heroism, and sacrifice. The two frescoes together create a complementary narrative that underscores the tensions and triumphs of duty and destiny, particularly as they relate to the roles of leaders, warriors, and the divine.

Hephaestus and Thetis: Martial Connections

"The Creation of Achilles’ Armor: This scene highlights the preparation for war and the inevitability of heroic sacrifice. Achilles, armed with divine craftsmanship, is destined for greatness in battle but also fated to die young.

"For a military patron, this imagery would symbolize the ultimate commitment to martial excellence, even in the face of personal loss or mortality.

"The Role of Thetis: Thetis, Achilles’ mother, pleads with Hephaestus to create the armor for her son, knowing it will equip him for battle but also seal his tragic fate. This evokes the emotional cost of martial glory—not just for the warriors themselves but also for those connected to them.

"In a household context, it may serve as a reminder of the sacrifices demanded of both warriors and their families, resonating with the patron’s personal or familial experiences of war.

"Hephaestus as a Symbol of Craftsmanship and Divine Favor: The divine involvement in forging Achilles' armor symbolizes the gods' role in shaping the destiny of heroes and commanders. This could reflect the patron’s belief—or claim—of divine favor or destiny in their own military career.

Thematic Connection to Dido and Aeneas

"When viewed together, the two frescoes form a coherent narrative that emphasizes the tension between personal desires, emotional sacrifices, and martial duty:

"Duty and Destiny (Aeneas vs. Achilles): Both Aeneas and Achilles are figures who must fulfill divine mandates:

"Aeneas must leave Dido and Carthage to establish the Roman people, prioritizing destiny over love.

"Achilles, armed with the divine gifts of Hephaestus, must embrace his fate as a warrior, even knowing it leads to his death.

"These narratives parallel the ideals expected of Roman military leaders: prioritizing Rome’s glory and their martial obligations over personal desires or safety.

"Emotional Sacrifice (Dido vs. Thetis): The women in both frescoes, Dido and Thetis, symbolize the emotional cost of duty:

"Dido, abandoned by Aeneas, represents the cost of his adherence to destiny.

"Thetis, grieving for her son even as she ensures his success in battle, represents the bittersweet nature of martial glory.

"Together, they emphasize the emotional toll of duty and sacrifice, likely a poignant message for a patron deeply involved in military life.

Symbolism in a Martial Context

"Public Messaging: The frescoes would convey to visitors the patron’s alignment with Aeneas’ pietas and Achilles’ heroism—two figures central to Roman ideals of leadership and martial excellence. The imagery suggests that the homeowner, like these heroes, embraced the burdens of duty and the pursuit of glory.

"Reinforcement of Divine Favor: By including Hephaestus and the divine forging of Achilles’ armor, the patron aligns their personal achievements with divine will, perhaps claiming similar celestial favor or destiny in their own military career."

"Balance of Masculine and Feminine Themes: The focus on Mars and Venus elsewhere in the house complements these frescoes, reinforcing the interplay of war and love. While Venus (as Aeneas’ mother) offers protection and favor, Mars and Hephaestus symbolize the tools and determination needed for martial success.

Moral Reflection: "The frescoes could also serve as a moral reflection on the cost of heroism: Aeneas sacrifices love for destiny, and Achilles sacrifices life for glory. For a military commander, this duality may resonate as a testament to the sacrifices demanded by their role.

Overall Interpretation

"The pairing of Dido abandoned by Aeneas with Hephaestus presenting Achilles’ armor to Thetis enhances the martial themes throughout the House of Meleager, particularly if the patron was a military commander. Together, they communicate:

"The primacy of duty over personal attachments.

"The divine endorsement of military endeavors.

"The emotional and personal costs of achieving greatness.

"A connection to mythological narratives that glorify the ideals of sacrifice, leadership, and destiny.

"For a visitor, the frescoes would create a striking impression of the patron as someone deeply aligned with Rome’s values of pietas, martial excellence, and divine favor—an identity central to the Roman elite."

The third fresco in the room was a bit baffling. Although it is very fragmented, some scholars have identified it as Paris and Helen. To me it does not fit the theme as well as a mural of Hector and Andromache would. But the male figure is almost nude and has a lyre beside him, not armored or with any weapons to indicate a warrior. I asked ChatGPT about this and it said:

"Your suggestion that the third painting in the room could depict Hector and Andromache rather than Paris and Helen is compelling, given the thematic consistency of duty, sacrifice, and martial valor reflected in the other two frescoes. Determining whether the figures are Paris and Helen or Hector and Andromache depends on key visual cues, such as attributes, context, and symbolism in the composition.

Attributes Supporting Helen vs. Andromache

If the painting represents Paris and Helen:

"Helen’s beauty and allure: Helen is often depicted with attributes emphasizing her exceptional beauty and desirability.

"Common symbols include: "A mirror, jewelry, or a finely adorned appearance.

"Cupid, symbolizing her connection to love and erotic desire (often used to signify her role as the cause of the Trojan War).

"If there are any indications of a sensual or romantic focus, it would support her identification.

"Paris’ leisurely posture: If the male figure appears relaxed, adorned with luxurious clothing, or shown with an air of vanity or indulgence, it would align with Paris’ reputation as a lover rather than a warrior. His lack of armor or warlike attributes might also suggest Paris over Hector.

"Context of luxury or seduction: Paris and Helen are often shown in idyllic, luxurious settings, emphasizing their relationship as a departure from duty and a source of discord. If the background or elements of the fresco reflect leisure rather than preparation for war, this would point to Paris and Helen.

If the painting represents Hector and Andromache:

"Hector’s martial attributes: Hector is the epitome of duty and martial valor. If the male figure is shown with armor, a helmet, or a spear nearby, it would strongly suggest Hector rather than Paris.

"A servant adjusting his sandal could signify Hector preparing to leave for battle, a poignant and frequent theme in representations of Hector and Andromache’s parting."

"Andromache’s maternal or modest portrayal: Andromache is often depicted with modest clothing and a solemn demeanor, emphasizing her role as a faithful wife and mother to Astyanax. If there is no overt sensuality or flirtation in the scene, this would align with Andromache.

"Attributes such as a child (Astyanax) or gestures indicating farewell or grief would further support this identification.

"Thematic alignment with duty and sacrifice: "Hector and Andromache’s farewell is one of the most poignant episodes in Homer’s Iliad, symbolizing the tension between personal love and public duty. This fits seamlessly with the themes expressed by the frescoes of Dido and Aeneas and Hephaestus and Thetis.

Analysis of the Servant Adjusting the Sandal

"The act of adjusting a sandal is significant and could support either interpretation:

"Paris and Helen: The act might be a gesture of luxury or indulgence, fitting Paris’ characterization.

"Hector and Andromache: The sandal-tying could symbolize Hector preparing to leave for battle, underscoring his martial duty.

"If the servant's action is paired with other warlike symbols (e.g., armor, a helmet nearby), it leans toward Hector. If it appears more decorative or leisurely, it supports Paris.

What to Look For to Identify Helen Specifically

"To confirm Helen’s presence, look for: "Cupid or a clear symbol of Venus (e.g., a dove, an apple referencing the Judgment of Paris).

"A sense of opulence or overt beauty (e.g., Helen adorned in luxurious garments or depicted with jewelry or a mirror).

"A context or demeanor emphasizing love or seduction over martial preparation.

"If these attributes are absent, the case for Helen weakens, and the interpretation shifts toward Andromache, whose portrayal is usually understated and domestic.

Thematic Preference: Hector and Andromache

"Hector and Andromache would harmonize better with the themes of the other two frescoes:

"Dido and Aeneas: Sacrifice of personal love for the sake of duty.

"Hephaestus and Thetis: Preparation for war and heroic destiny.

"Hector and Andromache: The heartbreak of a warrior leaving his family to fulfill his duty, knowing the cost it will bring.

"If the fresco lacks sensual or luxurious elements and instead emphasizes modesty, solemnity, and martial readiness, it is far more likely to represent Hector and Andromache."

I observed that there is no cupid, dove, or apple referencing the Judgement of Paris in the painting and the female wears a partially transparent gown relatively simple necklace but no evidence of a mirror.

Looking at the original fresco, right behind the female figure, I thought I saw a maid holding what looked like a small child on her left hip although she may just have her left arm slightly outstretched and the part that looks like a child's head is just folds of her sleeve. That is how it is portrayed in Marsigli's drawing. I wish the upper part of the fresco was intact. Perhaps I only interpreted it that way because I used to carry my son that way when he was little.

I uploaded an image of the fresco fragment to ChatGPT and asked if it could be an image of Paris preparing to confront Menelaus.

"Your suggestion of Paris preparing to confront Menelaus is intriguing and worth considering, as it would align with a martial theme, albeit one centered on a less heroic figure compared to Hector. Here’s a breakdown of how this interpretation could fit, along with challenges posed by the presence of the child and servant:

Paris Preparing to Confront Menelaus

Supporting Evidence:

"The Lyre: Paris is often depicted with a lyre, as he is more associated with culture, beauty, and leisure than with heroism. Including the lyre could symbolize Paris' softer, less warlike nature, even as he prepares for a duel.

"The Sandal Scene: A servant tying Paris’ sandal could signify preparation for the formal duel with Menelaus, which, in Homeric tradition, is not an impulsive act of battle but a ceremonious confrontation meant to settle the war’s cause.

"The Male Figure’s Appearance: "Paris, unlike Hector, is often shown in art with partial or full nudity, highlighting his beauty and vulnerability, which contrasts with Hector’s heroic imagery.

Challenges of This Interpretation:

"The Servant and Child: The inclusion of a child and a servant in the background complicates this identification. Paris had no children with Helen, and their presence here would not align with his story.

"Context of the Room’s Themes: If the other frescoes in the room emphasize duty and sacrifice (e.g., Dido’s abandonment by Aeneas and Hephaestus forging Achilles’ armor), Paris, who often represents indulgence and irresponsibility, seems an odd choice. His confrontation with Menelaus does not carry the same weight of sacrificial duty as Hector’s departure to battle.

"The Child and Servant: If the male figure is Paris, the child and servant may not be literal but symbolic. They could serve as general indicators of domesticity or family, contrasting with the looming conflict. However, this would be unusual in Roman art, where such elements are typically specific to the narrative being depicted.

"Alternatively, the presence of the child and servant could suggest the artist intended to depict Hector and Andromache but included the lyre to highlight a different aspect of the story, possibly to juxtapose familial life with the hero’s impending departure for war.

Conclusion

"While Paris preparing to confront Menelaus is a plausible interpretation, the presence of the child and servant suggests the fresco might lean toward a Hector-and-Andromache theme, emphasizing family and duty. However, the inclusion of the lyre adds ambiguity, and it’s possible the artist intentionally blurred traditional iconography to suit the patron’s preferences or to evoke multiple layers of meaning.

"If the artist intended Paris, they may have inserted the child and servant to symbolically enrich the scene, though this would be unconventional. Without further context or inscriptions, the precise identification remains open to interpretation."

Then I asked: "Is there a scene in the Iliad where Andromache pleads with Paris to be strong before Paris confronts Menelaus, knowing Hector would step in if Paris falters?"

ChatGPT replied:

"There isn't a specific scene in The Iliad where Andromache pleads directly with Paris before his confrontation with Menelaus, as her interactions in the epic are primarily centered around Hector. However, the idea of Paris being urged to demonstrate strength and responsibility is consistent with themes in The Iliad, particularly in light of his often-criticized cowardice and Hector's disdain for his actions.

"Here’s how the relevant parts of The Iliad align with your suggestion:

Andromache's Role in the Epic

"Andromache is portrayed as the devoted wife of Hector, deeply concerned for her husband and their family. Her most famous moment is in Book 6, where she pleads with Hector not to return to battle, highlighting her fears for their son Astyanax and the devastation Hector's death would bring.

"She does not interact directly with Paris in the epic, as their narrative threads are largely separate.

Paris’ Duel with Menelaus (Book 3)

"Paris is publicly shamed for his cowardice in Book 3, particularly by Hector, who rebukes him for retreating from Menelaus. This scorn prompts Paris to agree to the duel, though his motivation is primarily to salvage his honor rather than being spurred by anyone’s plea.

"Helen does confront Paris after his retreat from the duel (also in Book 3), but she mocks him rather than encouraging him. This interaction underscores Paris' perceived weakness and contrasts sharply with the sense of duty emphasized in Hector's interactions with Andromache.

Symbolism of Paris, Andromache, and Duty

"While Andromache does not explicitly address Paris in The Iliad, it's possible that the fresco artist or patron could have drawn inspiration from the broader themes of the epic:

"Family and Responsibility: The juxtaposition of Andromache and Paris in a scene could symbolize familial expectations and the burden of duty. Andromache might represent the pleading voice of those left behind, urging Paris to uphold his role as a Trojan prince.

"Hector’s Overshadowing Heroism: If Paris is depicted preparing for his confrontation with Menelaus, Andromache’s presence could hint at the inevitability of Hector stepping in should Paris falter, as he does in Book 3. This dynamic reinforces the themes of duty and sacrifice central to Hector’s character.

Artistic Liberty in Roman Frescoes

"Roman artists often adapted Homeric narratives to emphasize themes or morals that resonated with their patrons. While this exact scene does not exist in The Iliad, an artist might have chosen to depict Andromache urging Paris to fight as a way to contrast his lack of resolve with Hector's steadfast duty, fitting the martial and moralistic themes of the room.

Conclusion

"The scene you describe is not part of the Homeric canon, but it could reflect an artistic reimagining meant to emphasize the tension between familial devotion, personal honor, and public duty. By placing Andromache in the fresco with Paris, the artist could be underscoring the burden of responsibility shared by all members of the Trojan royal family, even as Paris fails to meet those expectations. If Hector is evoked in this context, it would further reinforce the martial and sacrificial themes present in the other frescoes of the House of Meleager." Studying Marsigli's drawing though, I had second thoughts. The fresco, though fragmented, was in better condition when Marsigli viewed it and he clearly represented the modestly dressed background female figure extending her left hand with a ribbon in it toward Paris. I asked ChatGPT about the symbolism of the ribbon and it pointed out the ribbon could represent Paris' broken bond to family duty and responsibility to the people of Troy. I also pointed out the foreground female's attire with the almost transparent upper part of the bodice and prominently detailed breasts that would be more consistent with Helen than a modest matron like Andromache. ChatGPT agreed: "You bring up an insightful point about the transparency of the gown and its implications for identifying the female figure as Helen or Andromache. Ancient concepts of modesty differ significantly from modern ones, particularly in artistic and symbolic contexts. In Pompeian frescoes, depictions of women often reflect the nature of their mythological roles, emphasizing their attributes or narrative function over strict adherence to contemporary notions of modesty. Let’s explore this further:

Helen's Transparency and Role in Myth

1. Transparency as a Symbol of Seduction: The transparent material revealing Helen's torso aligns well with her mythological role as a figure of irresistible beauty and seduction. Helen, in Greek myth, is often portrayed as the epitome of physical allure, and her abduction (or elopement) by Paris underscores her role in sparking desire and conflict. This artistic choice could emphasize her identity as a catalyst for Paris' actions and the ensuing Trojan War.

2. Artistic Conventions of Helen: In both Greek and Roman art, Helen is often depicted with a degree of eroticism to symbolize her desirability and her central role in myths of passion and betrayal. Transparent garments or partial nudity were typical for characters associated with Venus or erotic allure, reflecting their influence over men and their capacity to disrupt societal order.

Andromache and Modesty

1. Contrasting Depictions of Andromache: Andromache, as a symbol of loyalty, motherhood, and suffering, is traditionally depicted in more modest and somber attire. Her representation contrasts with figures like Helen or Venus, reflecting her virtues and role as a tragic figure in the Iliad. If the female figure were Andromache, we would expect her clothing to reflect these values, avoiding the transparency and sensuality seen in this fresco.

2. Clothing as a Narrative Device: The gown's transparency is a clear narrative signal pointing toward Helen's identity rather than Andromache's. Ancient artists used clothing—or the lack thereof—to provide viewers with clues about the character's identity and role in the mythological narrative.

Roman Interpretations of Myth

"In Roman art, depictions of mythological figures often blend Greek conventions with Roman values. While Helen's seductive nature might be exaggerated for dramatic and visual appeal, Andromache's traditional modesty aligns with Roman ideals of matronly virtue. The transparent gown in this fresco strongly suggests that the figure is Helen, reinforcing her mythological identity as a figure of allure and the instigator of Paris' fateful choices."

So, even if the primary couple is Paris and Helen, the background figure, possibly the modestly dressed Andromache, holding the ribbon serves to "tie" the myth to the overall theme of the importance of duty and responsibility to family and community. ChatGPT apparently agrees saying: "The ribbon, representing the severing of Paris' ties to his duties, contrasts sharply with the expected Roman virtues of pietas (duty to family, gods, and country). When viewed alongside the other frescoes in the House of Meleager, such as those depicting moments of abandonment or transformation (e.g., Ariadne abandoned by Theseus), the emphasis seems to be on the repercussions of choices that prioritize personal desire over obligation.

"If Paris' act is framed in this way, it would resonate with a broader message for the patron or viewer about the importance of loyalty and sacrifice."

"This interpretation gives the fresco a depth that ties it to the larger narrative themes of the house's decorative program. It becomes more than a depiction of myth; it serves as a reflection on the responsibilities of individuals within the family and society, warning against the allure of self-interest at the expense of communal stability. This layered reading also reinforces the idea that the art of Pompeii was designed not only for aesthetic pleasure but also for moral and cultural instruction."

Hopefully, the ancient visitors to the House of Meleager would recognize the messages projected by this group of frescoes more easily than I did!

If you enjoyed this post, never miss out on future posts by following me by email!