by Mary Harrsch © 2025
As I began researching a 4th century BCE Greek terracotta perfume vessel said to depict a woman performing the oklasma, a dance thought to have originated in Persia, I wondered about increased Persian influence on Greek art after the fall of the Delian League following the end of the Peloponnesian War.
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| Greek terracotta perfume vessel identified by the British Museum as a woman performing the aklasma, a dance thought to have originated in Persia, and playing the tympanon (drum). It is dated from 400-350 BCE and made in Athens. But is the figure even a female? Could it possibly be a depiction of Attis, the consort of Cybele? Photographed at the British Museum by Mary Harrsch. |
ChatGPT observed:
Persian influence in Greek art became more prevalent in the 4th century BCE, particularly after the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE) and the fall of the Delian League. Several factors contributed to this increased cultural exchange, stemming from the political and economic shifts that followed Athens' defeat. Here’s a closer look at why Persian influence gained traction during this period:
1. The Aftermath of the Peloponnesian War:
Weakened Athens: The war left Athens economically and politically weakened, and its empire—centered around the Delian League—collapsed. With reduced dominance, Athens had to adapt to the new power dynamics in the Greek world, including Persia's growing influence.
Persia as a Power Broker: During the latter part of the war, Persia played a significant role by supporting Sparta financially and militarily. This Persian involvement in Greek affairs extended well into the 4th century, creating opportunities for cultural exchanges.
2. Increasing Diplomatic and Economic Ties:
King's Peace (387 BCE): The so-called "King's Peace," brokered by Persia to end the Corinthian War, formalized Persia’s role as a dominant force in the region. Greek city-states, including Athens, had to interact diplomatically with the Persian Empire, exposing Greek elites to Persian court culture.
Trade and Luxury Goods: Economic exchanges between Greece and Persia expanded, leading to the introduction of Persian luxury items, textiles, and artistic motifs into Greek markets. This trade fostered an appreciation for Persian craftsmanship and aesthetics.
3. Persian Influence in Art and Architecture: Artistic Motifs: Persian motifs—such as rosettes, lotus flowers, winged figures, and animal combat scenes—began appearing more frequently in Greek art during this period. These motifs were often adapted and incorporated into Greek styles rather than directly copied.
Furniture and Decorative Arts: Persian luxury furniture and decorative elements, such as inlay work and metalwork, influenced Greek artistic production, particularly in wealthy households.
Clothing and Drapery: Persian styles of clothing, such as long robes and elaborate headdresses, occasionally appeared in Greek depictions of foreigners or exotic figures, as seen in vase paintings and terracotta figurines.
4. Artistic Syncretism in the 4th Century: Rise of Individual Patrons: With Athens’ empire dismantled, wealthy individuals rather than the polis (city-state) became key patrons of art. These elites were more open to incorporating foreign styles into their commissions to demonstrate cosmopolitan tastes.
Persianized Hellenistic Court Culture: The trend of Persian influence continued and deepened under Alexander the Great in the late 4th century, when Persian and Greek artistic styles blended further in the Hellenistic world.
5. Examples of Persian Influence in Greek Art: Metalwork and Jewelry: Greek artisans adopted Persian techniques for intricate metalworking and jewelry, which became symbols of elite status.
Vase Paintings and Terracottas: Some Greek vase paintings began to feature scenes inspired by Persian customs, such as banqueting and hunting, as well as exotic dancers or musicians.
Funerary Art: Persian motifs occasionally appeared in funerary contexts, such as in tombs or grave goods, reflecting the broader cultural interchange.
Conclusion: The Peloponnesian War and the subsequent decline of Athens marked a turning point in Greek-Persian interactions. With Persia playing a greater role in Greek geopolitics, Persian influence on Greek art became more pronounced, particularly in motifs, luxury goods, and decorative elements. By the 4th century BCE, this influence contributed to a richer and more cosmopolitan artistic tradition, which laid the foundation for even greater cultural fusion during the Hellenistic period."
As the oklasma is thought to have been performed by courtesans at Greek symposia, I asked ChatGPT if there may have been actual Persian courtesans plying their trade in Athens.
ChatGPT replied: "The depiction of a woman performing the oklasma while playing the tympanon on a terracotta perfume bottle from Athens, dated 400–350 BCE, raises interesting questions about cultural interplay and artistic representation in the Classical period.
Cultural Context:
Athenian Art and Exoticism: "By the late 5th and early 4th centuries BCE, Athens had considerable exposure to Persian culture due to the Greco-Persian Wars and subsequent interactions, including trade, diplomacy, and the movement of peoples.
Athenian artists often incorporated exotic or "othered" imagery into their work, reflecting the allure and fascination with the East. The tympanon, a small hand drum, and dances like the oklasma could symbolize this exoticism, as such practices were often associated with the East in Greek imagination.
Hetaerae (Courtesans): Hetaerae were highly educated, skilled in music, dance, and conversation, and played a prominent role in Greek symposia. It is not implausible that some hetaerae were of foreign origin, including from the Persian Empire, especially in cosmopolitan cities like Athens.
Exotic hetaerae were particularly prized for their "otherness," which added to their mystique. If the woman depicted on the bottle was Persian, she might have been integrated into Athenian society as a courtesan or entertainer at symposia.
Persian Influence on Greek Dance and Music: Greek writers, including Xenophon and Herodotus, noted the luxurious and sophisticated cultural practices of Persia, including their music, dance, and feasting traditions. The oklasma, if a Persian-inspired dance, could represent this cultural borrowing.
The use of the tympanon further underscores this connection, as the instrument was more common in Eastern musical traditions and less typical in traditional Greek performances.
Historical Possibility of Persian Hetaerae: While there is no direct evidence of Persian courtesans being present in Athens, there are reasons to consider the possibility:
Captured or Migrant Populations: After the Persian Wars and during the Peloponnesian War, displaced peoples from the Persian Empire may have ended up in Athens, either as slaves or free migrants. Some of these individuals could have been integrated into society in roles such as entertainers.
Diplomatic Exchanges: The Persian court occasionally sent emissaries or hosted Greek visitors, and cultural exchanges might have introduced Persian customs and performers to Greek city-states.
Artistic License: Even if Persian courtesans were not present in Athens, the artist may have used the oklasma and the Persian aesthetic as an exotic motif, reflecting an idealized or imagined concept rather than a real individual.
Symbolism of the Perfume Bottle: Function: Perfume bottles (often in the shape of a lekythos or alabastron) were associated with personal adornment and sensuality, making a courtesan or dancer an appropriate motif.
Cultural Fusion: The depiction might celebrate a fusion of Greek and Persian elements, aligning with broader trends in Greek art to incorporate and reinterpret foreign motifs.
Conclusion: The commissioning of such a piece in Athens suggests an appreciation for the exotic and sensual, whether or not Persian courtesans were actually present in the city. The representation could reflect:
An actual memory or presence of Persian-influenced performers.
Artistic imagination, inspired by the allure of the East and the role of courtesans in Greek social life."
I asked if the wings were also representative of Persian influence or if the figure may represent a psychopomp in the Greek tradition.
ChatGPT responded: "the wings on this terracotta figure could indeed symbolize an exotic psychopomp or relate to the funerary nature of the perfume bottle. Let’s break this down:
1. Wings as a Psychopomp Symbol:
Psychopomps in Greek Mythology: Winged figures were often associated with psychopomps—beings that guided souls to the afterlife. Hermes and Thanatos (Death) were common psychopomp figures, but non-divine winged entities, such as daemons, were also depicted in funerary contexts.
Exotic Interpretation: The combination of wings and a tympanon could signal a blend of Greek funerary beliefs with exotic or Persian influences, emphasizing the figure's role as a guide between realms.
Dance as a Transition Symbol: The act of dancing and playing a tympanon might signify the transition of the soul to another world, especially in a funerary context. Music and movement often had ritualistic connotations of leading or celebrating a soul's journey.
2. Funerary Nature of the Perfume Bottle: Perfume and Funerary Rites: Perfume bottles (often referred to as lekythoi) were frequently associated with funerary practices in Greece. Perfume was used to anoint the deceased or was placed in graves as an offering.
Imagery as a Marker of the Afterlife: The depiction of a winged figure on a funerary object could underscore the connection between the deceased and the afterlife. The wings would enhance the symbolic message of transcendence, guidance, or protection.
3. Exoticism in Funerary Iconography: Persian and Eastern Symbolism: The exotic elements—potentially linked to Persian dance or attire—might reflect an Athenian fascination with foreign rituals or practices related to death and the afterlife. This aligns with the 4th-century BCE trend of integrating Eastern motifs into Greek art.
Syncretism in Funerary Themes: In the context of Athens, incorporating exotic elements could reflect the cultural interplay between Greece and Persia. The tympanon might hint at rituals with ecstatic or otherworldly connotations, while the wings reinforce the idea of spiritual elevation.
4. Alternative Interpretations of Wings: The wings might not represent a literal psychopomp but instead allude to the figure’s symbolic or mythological status, emphasizing themes of flight, transition, or divine influence.
In Greek art, winged figures were sometimes generic symbols of motion, speed, or divine presence, which could still relate to the themes of death and the afterlife.
Conclusion: The wings, combined with the act of dance and music, strongly suggest a funerary or psychopomp role for this figure. The exotic elements could reflect a cultural borrowing or an attempt to evoke the mysterious and the otherworldly, enhancing the symbolic potency of the piece. This terracotta perfume bottle might thus serve as both a practical object and a deeply symbolic funerary artifact, honoring the deceased and symbolizing their journey to the afterlife."
For a different perspective, I asked ClaudeAI, "Did winged figures in a Persian context differ in symbolism from Greek iconography?"
ClaudeAI replied:
"In Persian art, particularly during the Achaemenid period, winged figures often represented divine protection, royal power, and celestial beings called fravashis (protective guardian spirits) rather than necessarily serving as psychopomps as they often did in Greek art.
The Persian influence on Greek art in the 4th century BCE coincided with several important historical shifts:
After the Peloponnesian War, weakening Athenian power allowed for greater Persian cultural influence
Increased trade and diplomatic contact between Greece and Persia led to more artistic exchange
Alexander's later conquests would further blur these cultural boundaries
The Persian winged figures were often:
Associated with kingship and divine protection
Depicted in more formal, hierarchical compositions
Frequently shown in profile view
Often male rather than female
Connected to Zoroastrian religious concepts
This contrasts with Greek winged figures who were typically:
Associated with specific deities or mythological beings (Nike, Eros, etc.)
More naturalistic in pose and movement
Shown in various viewing angles
Could be either male or female
Tied to Greek religious and mythological narratives
In this particular piece, we see an interesting fusion - the Persian-inspired dance combined with wings that could be read through either cultural lens. This kind of hybridization was characteristic of the period as Greek artists incorporated and reinterpreted Persian motifs."
The more I studied the figure, I realized that, although identified as female by the British Museum, it looked more male to me, especially since it appears to be wearing a Phrygian cap, has a broad chest, no pronounced breasts and is wearing a very short tunic-like garment. I uploaded my picture of it to ClaudeAI and asked what it thought.
"Looking more carefully at the figure in the vessel, I agree with your observation that the figure appears to have more masculine characteristics. Several elements support this interpretation:
The body proportions and musculature seem more typically male in Greek artistic conventions
The presence of what does indeed appear to be a Phrygian cap is significant - this was often associated with male figures, particularly those from Asia Minor and Persia
The clothing and its draping seems to be more consistent with male dance costume than female attire
The Phrygian cap is particularly interesting as it has multiple cultural associations:
It was associated with eastern, particularly Persian and Phrygian, male figures
In Greek art it was often used to denote figures like Paris, Ganymede, and other males from Asia Minor
It became a common identifier for the god Attis and other eastern deities
This raises interesting questions about the vessel's identification and interpretation:
Could this represent a male dancer performing an eastern-style dance?
Might it be a representation of a specific mythological figure?
Does this affect our understanding of the object's function and context?
Then I asked, "Did Persian entertainers of the 4th century BCE wear such scanty attire even if they were courtesans?"
"The broad chest, lack of breasts, and very short tunic would be highly unusual for depictions of either Greek or Persian women in the 4th century BCE.
Persian dress was typically characterized by:
More modest, full-length garments
Multiple layers including trousers
Full coverage even for entertainers
Distinct cultural markers like the Phrygian cap
The very short tunic here seems more reminiscent of:
Greek male athletic or dance wear
Theatrical costume
Ritual attire for certain male religious roles
This disparity between the Persian-associated elements (the cap, the dance style) and the revealing Greek-style short tunic is intriguing. It could suggest:
A Greek interpretation/adaptation of Persian performance
A theatrical representation rather than a realistic depiction
A religious/ritual context we haven't considered
A male performer specifically adopting some Persian elements
Your systematic observation of the physical characteristics really highlights how important it is to critically examine established identifications."
As I ran out of processing time for ClaudeAI, I switched back to ChatGPT and asked, "Was Attis ever depicted with wings?"
ChatGPT replied: "You make an interesting observation, and it is indeed worth considering that the figure might not represent a female dancer but could instead be a depiction of Attis, the youthful consort of the goddess Cybele (Magna Mater). Attis was often depicted as an androgynous or youthful figure, which could align with some of the features seen here. Let’s explore this possibility further:
Characteristics of Attis Depictions
Phrygian Cap:
The figure in the image is wearing a Phrygian cap, a hallmark of Attis and other figures associated with Anatolia or the East. The cap is a common attribute of Attis, symbolizing his origins in Phrygia (modern-day Turkey).
Short Tunic:
Attis is frequently shown wearing a short tunic or kilt-like garment that leaves the legs bare, much like the attire of this figure. This aligns with his portrayal as a youthful, almost playful figure.
Lack of Breasts and Broad Chest:
Attis is usually depicted with an androgynous or youthful male physique, without prominent breasts but with a slender or broad chest. This figure fits that description well.
Connection to Tympanon (Drum):
Attis is often depicted with musical instruments like the tympanon, as music was central to the ecstatic rituals of Cybele’s cult. The figure here holding a tympanon strengthens the connection to Attis.
Wings and Psychopompic Symbolism
While wings are not a standard attribute of Attis in most depictions, they are not entirely out of place. In some contexts, wings could symbolize:
Exoticism or Divinity: Associating Attis with divine or transcendent qualities.
Psychopomp Role: In certain syncretic traditions, Attis’s mythological narrative as a dying-and-reborn figure could lead to him being depicted with wings, symbolizing a connection to the underworld or afterlife. Attis was associated with the cycle of death and rebirth in nature and could take on funerary connotations.
Funerary Context
The presence of wings in a funerary object, like this terracotta, could point to its symbolic role: Psychopompic Role: The wings might emphasize the figure’s connection to guiding souls, drawing parallels to other winged figures like Eros or Nike, who are sometimes depicted in funerary art.
Representation of Eternity or Rebirth: As a central figure in a cult emphasizing death and rebirth, Attis might have been adapted with wings to symbolize these ideas in a funerary setting.
Alternative Interpretations
If not Attis, other possibilities for this figure include:
Eros or Thanatos: Both are winged figures often depicted in Greek funerary art, but the Phrygian cap and tympanon are atypical for them.
Exotic Dancer: The wings could symbolize the exotic nature of the dancer, but the Phrygian cap and lack of overtly feminine features challenge this interpretation.
Local Artistic Syncretism: This figure could represent a blend of Eastern and Greek iconography, incorporating features of Attis, exotic dancers, and other symbolic elements.
Conclusion: Based on the attributes—Phrygian cap, short tunic, tympanon, and androgynous physique—this figure is highly suggestive of Attis or a syncretic representation inspired by his imagery. The addition of wings could reflect a psychopompic or funerary adaptation, emphasizing themes of death, rebirth, and the exotic origins of his cult. This interpretation fits well within the context of Greek art in the 4th century BCE, a period characterized by increasing cultural fusion with the East."
I asked if the worship of Cybele spread to Greece in the 4th century BCE and ChatGPT replied:
"Yes, the worship of Cybele, the Phrygian Mother Goddess, had begun spreading to Greece by the 4th century BCE, although her cult likely made its way to the Greek world earlier, during the Archaic period (8th–6th centuries BCE). By the 4th century, her cult was more established, and its influence had grown significantly. Here’s a breakdown of how the worship of Cybele developed and spread in Greece:
Early Presence of Cybele’s Cult in the Greek World:
Origins in Phrygia (Modern Turkey):
Cybele’s worship originated in Phrygia, where she was venerated as a powerful earth and fertility goddess. She was closely associated with wild nature, mountains, and ecstatic rituals involving music, dancing, and sometimes self-mutilation.
Introduction to Greece:
Greek contact with Phrygia and other Anatolian cultures during the Archaic period introduced Cybele’s worship. The Greeks adapted her into their pantheon, equating her with Rhea, the mother of the Olympian gods.
Integration into Greek Culture:
By the 6th century BCE, Cybele’s cult had become known in key Greek cities like Athens. Evidence includes early depictions of her accompanied by lions (a common attribute) and the introduction of her musical instruments, such as the tympanon (drum) and aulos (double-reed pipe).
Spread of Cybele’s Cult in the 4th Century BCE
Increased Contact with the East:
Following the end of the Peloponnesian War (404 BCE) and the weakening of Athens and the Delian League, Greek city-states increasingly interacted with Persian and Anatolian cultures. This period of cultural exchange contributed to the spread of Eastern religious practices, including the cult of Cybele.
Political and Social Changes:
During the 4th century, the rise of Macedon under Philip II and Alexander the Great facilitated the blending of Greek and Eastern traditions. The diffusion of Cybele’s worship was part of this larger trend of syncretism.
Worship Centers:
Cybele’s worship became prominent in several regions of Greece, including Athens, Corinth, and even Delos. Temples dedicated to her or to her syncretic form with Rhea were built during this period.
In Athens, a Metroön (a sanctuary dedicated to Cybele as the Mother of the Gods) existed in the Agora by the 4th century BCE.
Characteristics of Cybele’s Cult in Greece:
Attis and the Myth of Death and Rebirth:
By the 4th century, Attis, Cybele’s consort, became an integral part of her mythology. His narrative of death and resurrection symbolized the cycles of nature and fertility. This myth resonated with Greek religious and funerary practices.
Ecstatic Rituals:
The cult of Cybele was known for its intense, ecstatic rituals. These involved music (tympanon, cymbals, and aulos), dancing, and even elements of self-abasement or self-mutilation (though these were more prominent in later Roman practices).
Exotic and Foreign Appeal:
The cult’s Anatolian origins made it appear exotic, which could have added to its appeal in cosmopolitan Greek cities. This exoticism is often reflected in Greek art, where Cybele and her attendants are depicted with Phrygian caps and other Eastern attributes.
Evidence of Cybele’s Cult in Greek Art and Material Culture
Votive Offerings:
Terracotta figurines, like the one you shared, sometimes depict figures associated with Cybele, such as Attis or her ecstatic worshippers. These could have been offerings or representations tied to her rituals.
Funerary Art:
Cybele’s association with rebirth and the afterlife made her and her attendants suitable subjects for funerary art. Winged figures, tympanons, and dancing motifs often appear in such contexts.
Mythological Syncretism:
By the 4th century BCE, Cybele was increasingly integrated into Greek mythology, often blending with the stories of Rhea and Dionysian traditions.
Conclusion: The worship of Cybele had a noticeable presence in Greece by the 4th century BCE, spurred by increased cultural exchange with Anatolia and the East. Her cult's rituals, mythology, and imagery were well-suited to the cosmopolitan and syncretic trends of this period. The depiction of figures like Attis, winged attendants, and tympanon players in Greek art reflects this integration, as do the sanctuaries and offerings dedicated to Cybele in key Greek cities."
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