Anthropological research using ChatGPT: Charity in the ancient world (Warning: Long Post) by Mary Harrsch
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| Silenus with the baby Dionysus - Roman marble copy from Greek original at the Vatican Museum. |
One of the readers of my article, “Ancient Eugenics: Much more than selective infanticide”, asked me if there was a major difference between Jews and Christians on the one hand and the Greco-Roman (pagan) world on the other in their views on infanticide. That same day news of a new version (4.0) of ChatGPT was released. So, I decided to give the new research tool a try by asking a series of questions about infanticide and the problem of orphaned children and other disadvantaged individuals in the ancient world, by culture, around the Mediterranean. I decided to restrict my queries to cultures with centralized administrations that I was reasonably sure had been the subjects of extensive excavations and scholarly activities to give ChatGPT the best chance of generating a response based on a reasonable data sample. I also assumed that the mitigation of poverty would have had the greatest effect of reducing the social need for infanticide or the abandonment or sale of children from nuclear families. I found the results I obtained from these queries quite interesting.
Since Christianity was eventually adopted by the Roman state in the 4th century, and some scholars consider it a primary influence on the reduction of infanticide or “child exposure” in Roman society I began with it and received a generalized summary of the issue:
“Infanticide has been a practice in many cultures throughout history for various reasons, such as poverty, disease, or cultural practices.
“The rise of Christianity did lead to a decrease in infanticide in certain cultures [not substantiated by my queries at least], particularly in the Roman Empire. This was due in part to the Christian belief in the sanctity of life, which discouraged the killing of infants. [The “sanctity of life” construct was adopted from Jewish law and scriptures. Although practiced by Jewish converts, this principle contained in the Old Testament was not officially adopted by early Gentile converts until the official “canon” was established in later antiquity.] Additionally, early Christian communities often provided support and assistance to parents who were struggling to care for their children, which may have helped to reduce the number of infants who were abandoned or killed [I am skeptical of this statement. The vast majority of early Christians were slaves and members of the lower classes in Rome. These individuals would not have the resources to advance to fellow struggling families in any large numbers. There may have been a few wealthy converts and these may represent the rare examples of philanthropy pointed to by early Christians in their evangelical efforts. This, of course, changed with the adoption of Christianity by the Roman state in the 4th century CE.]
“However, it is important to note that the decrease in infanticide was not solely due to the rise of Christianity. Other factors, such as changes in social and economic conditions, also played a role in reducing the practice. Additionally, infanticide continued to occur in some Christian societies, particularly in areas where poverty and hardship were prevalent.
“Overall, while the rise of Christianity may have contributed to a decrease in infanticide in some cultures, it is not accurate to say that it was the sole cause of this phenomenon.” - ChatGPT
I began to drill down, then, and evaluate charitable laws and policies of Roman culture and other contemporary Mediterranean cultures to provide social context and insight into practices that may have influenced Roman culture through trade and military contact. So, how did each culture address the problem of poverty?
Roman culture:
Question: How did the ancient Romans address poverty?
“The ancient Romans had a complex system for addressing poverty that evolved over time. In the early Roman Republic, the government provided some basic assistance to the poor through a system of grain distributions known as the "annona." However, this assistance was limited and sporadic.
“As Rome grew in power and wealth, the government's approach to poverty became more sophisticated. The emperor Augustus established a welfare system that provided monthly allowances to eligible citizens, including children, the elderly, and those with disabilities. This system, known as the "alimenta," was funded by taxes on wealthy citizens and provided food, clothing, and education to those in need.
“In addition to government assistance, the Roman elite often engaged in philanthropy as a way of demonstrating their wealth and status. Wealthy individuals would donate money or land to build public facilities such as baths, aqueducts, and hospitals, which could benefit the poor as well as the general population.
“However, poverty remained a significant problem in ancient Rome, and the government's efforts to address it were often limited and uneven. Many poor Romans relied on private charity, begging, or even crime to survive. Despite these challenges, the Roman approach to poverty provides an interesting historical perspective on the ways in which societies have attempted to support those in need.” – ChatGPT
I thought this was a decent high-level summary although it lacked the detail needed for a more comprehensive comparison. So, I asked, “What Roman laws addressed poverty?” and generated some of the detail I was looking for.
“There were several Roman laws and policies that addressed poverty and provided assistance to the poor. Here are some examples:
“Lex Frumentaria: This law, passed in 123 BCE, required the government to distribute grain to the poor at a subsidized price. The amount of grain given to each individual was based on family size and income, with the poorest families receiving the most.
“Lex Caecilia Didia: This law, passed in 98 BCE, required individuals who wanted to propose a new law to first submit it to the Senate for review. This law was intended to prevent laws that would be harmful to the poor from being passed.
“Lex Iunia Norbana: This law, passed in 64 CE, granted Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Roman Empire who had been born to a free citizen father and had lived in Rome for a certain period of time. This law helped to ensure that more people had access to the legal protections and benefits of Roman citizenship.
“Alimenta: This was a policy introduced by Emperor Trajan in the early 2nd century CE, which provided assistance to poor and orphaned children. The policy involved providing funds to local communities to support the education and upbringing of these children.
“Public works projects: The Roman government also engaged in various public works projects, such as building aqueducts and roads, which provided employment opportunities for the poor.
“Overall, while the Roman government did not have a comprehensive system of social welfare, there were laws and policies in place to address poverty and provide assistance to those in need.” – ChatGPT
Although ChatGPT made an oblique connection between poverty and the rights of Roman citizens, it did not make the more direct connection between poverty and family size so did not mention the Lex Papia Poppaea: This law encouraged marriage and childbearing among Roman citizens. It provided financial incentives for those who married and had children, and imposed penalties on those who remained unmarried or had no children.
However, Augustus' morality laws were aimed at the upper classes because of a falling birth rate he perceived among the elite during his reign. So, I asked ChatGPT if these morality laws applied to all Roman citizens:
"Like many laws in ancient Rome, the morality laws of Augustus did not apply equally to all Roman citizens. The laws were primarily aimed at the upper classes, who were seen as the guardians of traditional Roman values. Wealthy citizens and members of the aristocracy were expected to set an example for the rest of society by following these laws and promoting virtuous behavior.
"At the same time, many aspects of Roman life were regulated by social norms and customs rather than laws. While the morality laws of Augustus were intended to promote certain values, the actual practice of these values varied widely depending on social class, region, and personal circumstances. For example, while the laws encouraged marriage and childbearing, it was not uncommon for wealthy Roman men to engage in extramarital affairs or have children with concubines or slaves.
"In short, the morality laws of Augustus were one aspect of a complex system of social norms, customs, and laws that regulated behavior in ancient Rome. While these laws were intended to apply to all Roman citizens, their actual impact and enforcement varied depending on social status and personal circumstances." - ChatGPT
Since I am trying to evaluate a historical trend and this law would have directly influenced family size and perhaps any propensity to commit infanticide, I asked ChatGPT if Augustus' morality laws were ever repealed or modified.
"Yes, the morality laws of Augustus were modified and repealed over time as political and social conditions changed in Rome.
"During the reigns of Augustus's successors, some of the more restrictive laws regulating marriage and sexual behavior were relaxed. For example, the Lex Iulia de Maritandis Ordinibus was eventually repealed, and restrictions on inter-class marriages were eased.
"Similarly, the laws regarding adultery and sexual morality were modified to reflect changing attitudes toward sexuality and gender roles. Under the emperor Nero, for example, adultery was decriminalized, and same-sex relationships were tolerated to a greater extent.
"However, some of Augustus's morality laws remained in place for centuries, particularly those related to public order and corruption. For example, the Lex Iulia de Vi Publica et Privata continued to be enforced throughout the Roman Empire, and laws against corruption remained on the books for centuries.
"Overall, the morality laws of Augustus were an important part of Roman law and society, but they were not set in stone. Like all laws, they were subject to change over time as political and social conditions shifted, and as attitudes toward morality and behavior evolved." - ChatGPT
Although this response referred to two of the other morality laws of Augustus, it does not mention the Lex Papia Poppaea. So I rephrased my query and asked directly if the Lex Papia Poppaea was ever modified or repealed.
"The Lex Papia Poppaea, which was a set of laws passed by Augustus to promote marriage and childbearing, was modified and repealed over time as social and economic conditions changed in the Roman Empire.
"Under the emperor Caracalla in the 3rd century CE, the law was modified to provide financial incentives for those who married and had children, regardless of social status. This change was intended to encourage population growth and address the declining birthrate in the Roman Empire.
"In the 4th century CE, the emperor Constantine repealed many of the restrictions on marriage contained in the law. He also introduced new laws that further encouraged marriage and childbearing, such as tax exemptions for families with children.
"Over time, the incentives provided by the Lex Papia Poppaea became less important as the Roman economy shifted from an agrarian to an urban economy. In the late Roman Empire, many of the financial incentives provided by the law were no longer relevant or effective, and the law was eventually repealed. { I would point to the extreme financial exigency of the period.]
"In summary, while the Lex Papia Poppaea played an important role in promoting marriage and childbearing in ancient Rome, its provisions were modified and repealed over time as social and economic conditions changed in the Roman Empire." - ChatGPT
From my perspective, I think the financial incentives contained within the Lex Papia Poppaea would probably have more influence on the behavior of the overall population than religious mandates of a sect that, before Constantine, composed less than 10% of the population. (See "A World Full of Gods" by Professor Keith Hopkins)
Since I'm also comparing pagan practices to Christian/Jewish practices, I also asked:
Did any Roman religion mandate behavior towards children?
"There is no evidence to suggest that any Roman religion mandated specific behavior towards children. However, the concept of pietas, or piety, was an important part of ancient Roman religion and ethics, and it included an expectation of respect and duty towards one's family, including children.
"The Roman family was considered a sacred institution, and the welfare of children was considered a priority. Roman law recognized the rights and responsibilities of parents and children, and parents were expected to provide for their children's basic needs, such as food, shelter, and education.
"There were also a number of customs and traditions associated with Roman family life that emphasized the importance of children. For example, the birth of a child was a significant event, and families often celebrated the arrival of a new child with feasting and gift-giving." - ChatGPT
Now, let’s explore the provisions made to mitigate poverty in surrounding cultures.
Egypt:
“Ancient Egypt had a complex social and economic system, and poverty was a persistent issue for many people, particularly those living in rural areas. The government and religious institutions played a significant role in addressing poverty and providing support to those in need.
“One way that the government addressed poverty was through a system of taxation and redistribution of wealth. Wealthy landowners and merchants were required to pay taxes and contribute to public works projects, such as irrigation systems and temples. These projects provided employment opportunities for the poor, as well as resources for the community.
“In addition to taxation, the government also provided support to the poor in the form of food and other basic necessities. Temples and other religious institutions played a significant role in this, as they were often responsible for distributing food and other resources to the needy.
“Charitable giving was also an important part of Egyptian culture, and wealthy individuals and families were expected to provide support to those in need. This was often done through the construction of public works projects, such as wells or granaries, that benefited the community as a whole.
“Overall, while poverty was a persistent issue in ancient Egypt, the government and religious institutions played an important role in addressing it through a combination of taxation, redistribution of wealth, and charitable giving.” - ChatGPT
Was infanticide practiced in ancient Egypt?
“There is limited evidence to suggest that infanticide was practiced in ancient Egypt, although it may have been rare and not widely accepted. The ancient Egyptians held a high value for children and families, and there are several depictions in art and literature of parents doting on and caring for their children.
“However, there are some references to infanticide in ancient Egyptian texts and some archaeological evidence that suggests the practice occurred in some instances. For example, there are references in some texts to the killing of infants who were deemed illegitimate or who were born to mothers who could not support them. It is also possible that infants were sometimes abandoned or left to die if they were deemed unwanted or if their parents could not afford to care for them.
“Additionally, some archaeological evidence has been found of infant burials that suggest that the infants may have been intentionally killed or left to die. However, it is difficult to determine the extent to which infanticide was practiced in ancient Egypt, as the available evidence is limited and biased towards the perspectives of the ruling elite.” – ChatGPT
Persia:
“The Persian Empire had a complex administrative and social system that addressed poverty in various ways. Here are some ways that the Persians addressed poverty:
“Royal charity: The Persian kings engaged in acts of charity towards their subjects, which included providing food, clothing, and shelter to those in need. The royal treasury was used to fund these charitable works.
“Public works projects: The Persian kings also engaged in public works projects, such as the construction of roads, bridges, and aqueducts. These projects provided employment opportunities for the poor and contributed to the overall welfare of the population.
“Land reforms: The Persian kings implemented land reforms that aimed to distribute land more fairly among the population. This allowed more people to own land and provided a means for them to support themselves.
“Zoroastrianism: Zoroastrianism, the dominant religion of the Persian Empire, placed a strong emphasis on charity and the care of the poor. The religion encouraged followers to engage in acts of charity and to help those in need.
“Taxation: The Persian Empire had a complex tax system that was designed to provide for the welfare of the population. Taxes were collected from the wealthy and redistributed to the poor in the form of food, clothing, and shelter.
“Overall, the Persian Empire had a complex system of governance that aimed to provide for the welfare of the population, including the poor. While poverty still existed in Persia, these measures helped to alleviate some of the worst effects of poverty and ensured that the population had access to basic necessities.” - ChatGPT
Was infanticide practiced in ancient Persia?
“There is little evidence to suggest that infanticide was commonly practiced in ancient Persia. However, the historical record is somewhat limited and there may have been isolated instances of infanticide.
“In general, the Persian Empire had a strong tradition of family values and respect for children, which was reflected in their laws and customs. Children were considered a valuable asset to society and were given special protection and care.
“The Zoroastrian religion, which was the predominant religion in ancient Persia, also placed a high value on the sanctity of life and prohibited the taking of innocent life, including the killing of children.
“In addition, the Persian Empire had a well-developed legal system that recognized the rights of children and protected them from harm. For example, the Persian legal code contained provisions to punish parents who mistreated or neglected their children.
“Overall, while there is little evidence to suggest that infanticide was commonly practiced in ancient Persia, it is possible that isolated instances of the practice may have occurred. However, the strong cultural and religious values placed on family and the sanctity of life suggest that such instances would have been rare and generally condemned by society.” - ChatGPT
Greece:
“Poverty was a persistent issue in ancient Greece, particularly in urban areas where there was a high concentration of people. While there was no single approach to addressing poverty, a number of different strategies were used to provide assistance to the poor and vulnerable.
“One approach to addressing poverty in ancient Greece was through public works projects. This included the construction of infrastructure such as roads, aqueducts, and public buildings. These projects provided employment opportunities for the poor and helped to stimulate economic growth in the region.
“Another approach to addressing poverty was through charitable giving. Wealthy individuals and families were expected to provide support to those in need, often through the provision of food, clothing, and other basic necessities. Charitable giving was seen as a way to demonstrate one's social status and gain the respect of the community.
“Religious institutions also played an important role in addressing poverty in ancient Greece. Temples and other religious organizations provided assistance to the poor, often through the distribution of food and other resources. In addition, some temples operated as banks, providing loans and financial assistance to those in need.
“Finally, the government also played a role in addressing poverty in ancient Greece, although the approach varied depending on the region and time period. In some cases, the government provided direct assistance to the poor, while in others they implemented policies designed to stimulate economic growth and create employment opportunities.
“Overall, while poverty was a persistent issue in ancient Greece, a number of different strategies were used to address it. These included public works projects, charitable giving, support from religious institutions, and government assistance.” - ChatGPT
Did the ancient Greeks practice infanticide?
“There is some evidence to suggest that infanticide was practiced in ancient Greece, particularly in cases where children were born with physical deformities or other disabilities. However, it is important to note that the practice of infanticide was not widespread, and it was generally frowned upon by Greek society.
“The evidence for infanticide in ancient Greece comes primarily from written sources, such as the works of the historian Plutarch and the philosopher Aristotle. These sources suggest that infanticide was sometimes practiced by families who were unable to care for their children or who saw them as a burden.
“However, it is also clear that infanticide was not a socially acceptable practice in ancient Greece. Laws were in place to protect children from harm, and those who were found guilty of infanticide could face severe punishment.
“In addition, many aspects of Greek culture, such as the emphasis on family and community, placed a high value on the sanctity of life, particularly the lives of children. As such, while infanticide may have occurred in ancient Greece, it was generally viewed as a last resort and was not condoned by society as a whole. - ChatGPT
Judea:
“The ancient Jews had a strong tradition of caring for the poor, which was based on religious and moral principles.
“In the Hebrew Bible, the Torah contains many laws and commandments related to poverty and helping the needy. For example, farmers were required to leave the corners of their fields unharvested so that the poor could gather food, and they were also required to give a portion of their harvest to the poor. There were also laws regarding debt forgiveness and the release of slaves after a certain period of time, which provided some protection for the poor and enslaved.
“In addition to these laws, there were also institutions in ancient Jewish society that were dedicated to helping the poor. For example, there were organizations known as "gemach" or "g'mach" (which stands for "gemilut chasadim," or acts of kindness) that provided interest-free loans to those in need. There were also charitable organizations, known as "tzedakah," which collected donations and distributed them to the poor.
“Furthermore, caring for the poor was seen as a moral obligation for all Jews, and acts of charity were considered to be one of the most important mitzvot (commandments) in Judaism.
“Overall, the ancient Jews had a strong tradition of caring for the poor, which was based on religious and moral principles. Through laws, institutions, and individual acts of charity, the Jewish community worked to alleviate poverty and help those in need." - ChatGPT
Although Assyria was a much older civilization than Rome, I couldn’t help but ask ChatGPT about its attempts to address poverty, especially since it is usually represented as such a brutal culture.
Assyria:
“There is limited information about how the Assyrian Empire addressed poverty, but there are some records and archaeological evidence that suggest that they had measures in place to provide assistance to the poor and needy.
“Royal charity: Assyrian kings engaged in acts of charity towards their subjects, which included providing food, clothing, and shelter to those in need. The annals of the Assyrian kings record instances of royal charity, such as the distribution of food during times of famine or the provision of clothing to soldiers.
“Public works projects: The Assyrian kings also engaged in public works projects, such as the construction of canals, fortresses, and irrigation systems. These projects provided employment opportunities for the poor and contributed to the overall welfare of the population.
“Laws protecting the poor: The Assyrian kings also passed laws protecting the poor from exploitation and mistreatment. For example, there are records of laws that prohibited landlords from evicting tenants who were unable to pay their rent and laws that mandated fair wages for workers.
“Religious institutions: The Assyrian religion placed a strong emphasis on charity and the care of the poor. Temples and religious institutions played a role in providing assistance to the poor, including food, clothing, and shelter.
“Overall, while the Assyrian Empire was known for its military conquests and harsh treatment of conquered peoples, there is evidence to suggest that the Assyrian kings had measures in place to address poverty and provide assistance to the needy.” - ChatGPT
Was infanticide practiced in the Assyrian empire?
“There is limited information about the practice of infanticide in the Assyrian Empire, but there is some evidence to suggest that it was not uncommon.
“Assyrian society was patriarchal, and having male children was highly valued. Female infants were sometimes seen as a burden, as they were not considered as useful for labor or military purposes. Additionally, it was believed that male children had a better chance of carrying on the family line and providing for their parents in old age.
“There are records of Assyrian kings engaging in the practice of infanticide. For example, the annals of the Assyrian king Sennacherib record that he ordered the killing of all of his brothers' male children in order to prevent them from challenging his rule. Additionally, there are records of Assyrian soldiers killing infants during military campaigns.
“It is worth noting that infanticide was not unique to the Assyrian Empire, and was practiced in other ancient societies as well. However, it is difficult to determine the extent to which infanticide was practiced in Assyria, as the historical records are limited and biased towards the perspectives of the ruling elite.” - ChatGPT
So, it appears to me ChatGPT, responding to increasingly more targeted questions, can produce quite usable information. What was most astonishing to me was how quickly I could gather so much information!
