Tuesday, November 5, 2024

Venus as an authority figure in Pompeii

 by Mary Harrsch © 2024

While searching through images of Pompeii frescos with Bacchus, I stumbled across this fresco from an exterior wall between the Casa di M. Terrentius Eudoxus (VI 13,6) and a workshop at VI 13,7. It is described as a fresco of Bacchus-Liber Pater with Venus Pompeiana-Libera instead of his consort Ariadne.

Original fresco of Bacchus and Ariadne from the Casa di M Terentius Eudoxus VI.13,
between entrances 6 and 7, Pompeii. 

Casa di M Terentius Eudoxus VI.13, between entrances 6 and 7, Pompeii. Anonymous drawing of the above painting MN 9282, which might be attributed to Nicolas La Volpe 

I was curious why the excavators arrived at this identification so I asked ChatGPT:
"In this fresco from the workshop at VI, 13, 6-7 in Pompeii, the female figure is identified as Venus Pompeiana-Libera rather than Bacchus’s consort Ariadne due to several iconographic and contextual cues...the staff held by the female figure in the fresco from the Casa di M. Terentius Eudoxus can indeed serve as an identifying attribute, helping distinguish her as Venus rather than Ariadne. In Roman art, Venus is sometimes depicted with a scepter or staff, emphasizing her status as a powerful and sovereign deity associated with authority over love, beauty, and fertility. This attribute reinforces her role as a figure of civic and protective power, especially in Pompeii where Venus was venerated in her localized form as Venus Pompeiana.
"Ariadne, on the other hand, is typically portrayed with different attributes in her mythological depictions, such as wreaths or garlands (symbolizing her eventual union with Bacchus), and she is often shown in scenes of abandonment or discovery, rather than as a figure of authority. Therefore, the staff held by the female figure is more consistent with Venus's iconography, marking her divine sovereignty and protective influence. In Pompeii, this choice of iconography would align with the residents' reverence for Venus Pompeiana as a protector of the city and its people, further differentiating her from mythological figures like Ariadne who lack this civic dimension...Pompeians regarded her [the goddess] as a local version of Venus that combined traditional Venusian qualities with some freedom-oriented attributes of Libera, aligning her with the ideas of personal and social liberation, fertility, and civic prosperity.
"The presence of Bacchus (or Liber Pater, the Roman equivalent) in this fresco also plays a significant role. Bacchus was not only a god of wine and revelry but also associated with liberation and rebirth, concepts that resonated deeply in the social and religious fabric of Pompeii. In this context, Bacchus and Venus Pompeiana-Libera appear as complementary deities, embodying themes of fertility, abundance, and liberation rather than focusing on the myth of Ariadne's romantic union with Bacchus. This pairing reflects a local cultic adaptation, where the divine figures were portrayed with attributes that reinforced Pompeii's values and prosperity.
"Additionally, Bacchus and Venus together may symbolize civic values and protection, with Venus Pompeiana as a divine guardian over the city's social life and economic fortune. Ariadne, while central in myth as Bacchus’s wife, does not carry the same civic and protective attributes that Venus Pompeiana-Libera does within Pompeii. Therefore, the fresco’s setting in a public-facing workshop further reinforces the interpretation of this pairing as a symbolic and protective partnership rather than a mythological romance scene, emphasizing community-oriented rather than personal or mythical themes."​
Some years ago, when I was translating Volume 1 of Hauser in Pompeij: Casa del Principe di Napoli, I had encountered this pairing in the triclinium. There, however, Venus is portrayed in the more familiar pose of wringing sea water from her hair, rather than in the more authoritarian example of the workshop. ChatGPT told me the pairing was still probably selected for its protective message.
"By placing them together in a triclinium—a dining area used for social and sometimes ceremonial gatherings—the homeowners may have intended to invoke these deities’ protective and liberating qualities over their household and guests. The presence of these figures in such spaces would remind diners of the prosperity, protection, and harmony Venus and Bacchus offered, fitting well with the atmosphere of hospitality and celebration.
"This pairing likely resonated with the broader Roman ideals of concordia (harmony) and abundantia (abundance), which were desirable qualities in both the household and the community. Thus, the fresco reflects not only personal devotion but also broader societal values, portraying Bacchus and Venus as guardians of both personal joy and collective prosperity​."
If you enjoyed this post, never miss out on future posts by following me by email!


Rare Bacchus and Ariadne fresco that includes Theseus' ship sailing away in the House of the Colored Capitals

 by Mary Harrsch © 2024

This lithograph of the frescoed east wall of Room 24 (pompeiiinpictures floorplan) from the House of the Colored Capitals (VII 4, 31-51 Pompeii) is Henri Roux's 1846 copy of a painting of Bacchus and Ariadne on Naxos. According to Raoul-Rochette, it is unusual in that it depicts both Ariadne awakening and seeing Thesus sailing away as well as the approach of Bacchus and his retinue who is preparing to console her. "...the union of the two scenes, that of Ariadne's despair on waking and that of Bacchus's approach, is a new appearance in this whole class of monuments relating to the meeting of Bacchus and Ariadne at Naxos. We must believe, however, that there existed in antiquity compositions in which this subject was treated in the manner just indicated and which was followed by the author of our painting of Pompeii: for it is the one that Catullus seems to have had in mind in his beautiful description of the tapestry which appeared at the wedding of Thetis and Peleus4; and it is also the one which results from the poetic narration of Nonnus5. In both of these writers, Ariadne, awake on her solitary couch, gives herself over to the full effusion of her grief, while Bacchus, already near her with all his retinue, lends his ear to the passionate accents of this amorous despair, which he is preparing to console.

Frescoed wall with mural of Bacchus and Ariadne from House of the Colored Capitals, Pompeii  by Henri Roux lithography by Raoul Rochette


House of the Colored Capitals Drawing by Serafino Mastracchio of painting of Arianna abandoned on Naxos

"Ariadne, half-raised on her deserted couch, has just noticed the abandonment of Theseus. By a naive movement, of which the paintings hitherto known of the same subject had not yet offered an example, at least for the character of Ariadne, she raises to her eyes a piece of the pip which covers the lower part of her body, to wipe away her tears, while, in the seizure of her silent grief, she fixes her gaze on the Athenian ship which is sailing away under full sail. It is in a grotto, on the seashore, that Ariadne appears here, lying on a bed, which consists of a single mattress, with a cushion of the same material, in all the simplicity of the heroic age. This whole figure is full of grace, and superior, in thought as in execution, to that of paintings long since discovered. The group of Bacchus, surrounded by three of the figures from his thiasis, offers an image no less new or less curious. The god, dressed in a pallium that leaves the entire upper part of his body uncovered, leans with his right hand on the shoulder of Silenus, his old and faithful governor; he seems entirely absorbed in the contemplation of Ariadne, and the state in which the artist did not fear to represent him4 expresses only too sensitively the impression that the appearance of the Cretan heroine produced on him. The two women who appear behind Bacchus must be, one, Psalacantha5, the other, the nymph of Naxos, whose presence at this erotic scene was already explained1; and the curiosity which is depicted in their physiognomy accords well with the role which they fulfil in this hierogamy.
"This painting, recently taken from the ruins of Pompeii, therefore offers a completely new type..." - Raoul-Rochette, 1846.
I looked at 10 pages of links to images of Ariadne on pompeiiinpictures.com and could not find any other images of Ariadne that combined all three elements. ChatGPT pointed out:
"This composition is especially rare and distinctive in the House of the Colored Capitals, where it uniquely captures the myth's transitionary moment, balancing Ariadne's abandonment by Theseus with Bacchus's arrival in the same frame.
"The singularity of this depiction in the House of the Colored Capitals might have symbolized themes of fate, transition, or divine consolation that resonated with its residents. The inclusion of all three elements—the ship sailing off, Ariadne’s sorrow, and Bacchus’s approach—would create a more complex narrative within a single fresco, linking themes of loss and divine intervention in a way that was less common across other Pompeiian houses."
Sadly, the original fresco is now indistinguishable. But, in addition to the lithograph, we at least we have the drawing by Serafino Mastracchio to corroborate its appearance.
If you enjoyed this post, never miss out on future posts by following me by email!


Apollo and Daphne: A lesson in how unrequited love or loss can become a source of inspiration

 by Mary Harrsch  © 2024

The fresco "Apollo and Daphne" from the House of the Dioscuri in Pompeii, reproduced by 19th century artist Henri Roux, offered multiple messages to visitors to the home.


Apollo and Daphne from Pompeii  by Henri Roux lithography by Raoul Rochette (d 1854) House of the Dioscuri

House of the Dioscuri VI 9,6 Pompeii Room 21, tablinum, central panel on west wall with original fresco of Apollo and Daphne courtesy of Johannes Eber

House of the Dioscuri VI 9,6 Pompeii Room 21, tablinum, north side of west wall showing side panel on north end and central painting of Apollo and Daphne 19th century

House of the Dioscuri VI 9,6 Pompeii Room 21, south side of west wall showing side panel on south end and central painting of Apollo and Daphne by V Steeger 1877

ChatGPT explains its symbolism:

"The myth of Apollo and Daphne is layered with themes, often interpreted to reflect the complex relationship between love, desire, and unattainable beauty. In the myth, Apollo, the god of the sun, music, and poetry, becomes infatuated with Daphne, a nymph devoted to chastity. However, Daphne does not reciprocate his feelings, and as Apollo chases her, she prays to her father, the river god Peneus, to protect her from Apollo’s relentless pursuit. In response, Peneus transforms her into a laurel tree, which Apollo then adopts as his sacred symbol, weaving its branches into a crown to honor her eternally.
"The myth's symbolism can be viewed in several ways:
"Unrequited Love and Desire: Apollo's pursuit of Daphne symbolizes the nature of unfulfilled or one-sided desire, highlighting how desire, even when intense and godly, doesn’t necessarily lead to union or fulfillment. Instead, it transforms into respect and reverence, as seen when Apollo honors Daphne as the laurel tree.
"Transformation and Escape: Daphne’s transformation reflects a common theme in myths where characters escape unbearable situations by becoming something else. Her metamorphosis into a laurel tree represents not only the lengths to which one might go to maintain autonomy but also the concept of transcendence—escaping the mortal world and becoming a symbol of beauty and resilience.
"Chastity and Pursuit: Daphne’s devotion to chastity contrasts with Apollo’s desire, symbolizing the tension between purity and desire. It raises questions about control, boundaries, and the nature of romantic pursuit, especially when one party is uninterested.
"Symbol of Eternal Art and Fame: By making the laurel his sacred plant, Apollo turns Daphne into a lasting symbol, associated with artistic and intellectual achievement, as laurel crowns later came to symbolize honor and glory, particularly in arts and poetry. Through this, the myth suggests that beauty and creativity can be immortalized, though sometimes only through transformation or loss.
"Ultimately, the myth of Apollo and Daphne speaks to the transformation of passion into art, highlighting how unrequited love or loss can become a source of inspiration, leading to reverence and symbolic beauty rather than possession."
When I studied the House of the Dioscuri previously, I noticed that it had a number of full body portrait-like paintings of several Roman deities like enthroned Jupiter, Dionysus, and Saturn, that made me wonder if the owner of the house had served as a priest at some point. So, I asked ChatGPT if the owner had been a priest, would this have changed the possible symbolism of the "Apollo and Daphne" mural. It replied:
"if the residents of the House of the Dioscuri were priests, the symbolism of the Apollo and Daphne mural would gain even deeper layers of meaning, aligning with their religious duties and spiritual ideals.
"Divine Favor and Protection: As priests, the residents would see Apollo not just as a mythical figure but as an active divine presence. Daphne’s transformation could symbolize divine intervention—Apollo’s adoption of the laurel as his sacred symbol reflects the way gods might impart protection, transformation, or resilience upon those under their care. For priests, who served as intermediaries with the gods, this story would resonate as a reminder of their special relationship with the divine.
"Symbol of Purity and Sacred Vows: Daphne’s vow of chastity and her commitment to autonomy echo the priestly values of purity, devotion, and restraint. Many religious rites in Pompeii required purity, and some priestly roles, particularly for women, included vows of chastity. The myth reinforces these ideals, symbolizing the lengths to which one should go to honor divine vows, even to the point of transformation or self-sacrifice.
"Apollo’s Role in Prophecy and Healing: As priests, the residents might have viewed Apollo as a patron of prophecy and healing, both of which were critical to religious life. Apollo was a central figure in oracles and healing rituals, and his mythology would support the residents' roles as spiritual guides and healers within the community. Displaying the myth in their home would emphasize their alignment with Apollo’s power to provide insight and relief to the people of Pompeii.
"Emblem of Eternal Honor: Priests were esteemed members of society, entrusted with upholding tradition and the city’s welfare. The laurel’s association with honor and immortality would symbolize the priests' own pursuit of lasting respect and dedication to the divine. For the residents, the laurel may have been more than an artistic motif; it could symbolize their hope for divine recognition and enduring spiritual legacy, much as Apollo’s honor for Daphne transcends her physical form.
"Cultural and Civic Significance: As spiritual leaders, the priests likely had a responsibility to embody and preserve cultural values. Displaying this myth not only served as a religious symbol but also as a reminder of moral ideals. It reinforced the idea that personal desires should yield to higher principles—a message reinforcing both civic duty and moral restraint, which priests modeled within society.
"In this light, the Apollo and Daphne mural would serve not only as decoration but as a symbolic statement of the household's dedication to divine service, purity, and the lasting honor that comes from devotion to the gods."
If you enjoyed this post, never miss out on future posts by following me by email!


Magnific's photorealistic image generator: Useful for historical illustrations?

by Mary Harrsch © 2024

Watched a video about an AI graphic generator tool called Magnific. Unlike the early version of Generative AI I have used in Photoshop that limited your prompt to five words or less, Magnific allows you to describe the image you want in far more detail. Here are some of the images I was able to produce. First, I asked for a Roman centurion with a gladius battling a Germanic warrior with a battle ax and got the first image. Since the centurion's helmet did not have a transverse crest, the gladius was depicted as a dagger and I didn't think Germanic warriors used crested helmets, I replaced the word gladius to "short sword", specified a helmet with a transverse crest then described the Germanic warrior as wearing furs and a horned helmet, then got the second image. The centurion's helmet was still wrong so I changed the prompt to just say a Roman officer but increased the "creativity" setting from 33% to 60% and got the third image.
I took the first image and had to use Photoshop to remove armor for the right leg of the Roman that was in the wrong place but other than historical accuracy, it made an interesting image. The second image had the Germanic warrior's left hand holding what looked like a samurai sword hilt. I used Photoshop to remove it and refashioned his hand to look like a fist instead to make it a usable image. I've never seen a Germanic helmet that looked like the one depicted in the third image (It reminded me of the helmets from "Gladiator") but, oh well! I did notice the background image changed to resemble and arena rather than a battlefield, too. I wanted to have the Roman officer clean-shaven but I ran out of credits since I was using only the free version of Magnific (a 10 image limit per day). So now, I have to wait a day for my account to reset!
This tool could be quite useful for generating book covers or illustrations if you could craft the prompt enough to restore as much historical accuracy as possible. If you wish to create more images than 10 per day, a subscription for the software costs $39/mo to make around 200 normal upscales and 100 large ones.
https://magnific.ai/editor/
Magnific Roman fighting Germanic Warrior right leg armor removed (in the wrong place) Creativity index set to 33 



Magnific Roman with short sword fighting Germanic Warrior with horned helmet and rebuilt fist creativity index set to 33

Magnific Roman with short sword fighting Germanic Warrior with battle ax creativity index set to 60.  Notice how the background image has changed to an arena instead of a battlefield.


If you enjoyed this post, never miss out on future posts by following me by email!


Bacchus discovering Ariadne on Naxos: A freedman's emphasis on improvement in social standing?

by Mary Harrsch © 2024

This lithograph from a painting by Henri Roux, from the House of the Colored Capitals in Pompeii is a scene of Bacchus and Ariadne on Naxos. This painting is echoed in almost all details by a drawing of the fresco by Nicola La Volpe, active in Pompeii from 1865-1871. The only difference I could find was a wreath on the head of the winged figure behind Ariadne depicted by La Volpe but missing in the painting by Roux.

Bacchus and Ariadne on Naxos from Pompeii  by Henri Roux lithography by Raoul Rochette (d 1854)

Caasa di Capitali Colorati VII 4,31-51 Pompeii. Room 20, west wall. Drawing by N. La Volpe of painting of Ariadne abandoned on Naxos

I asked ChatGPT if a mural of Bacchus finding Ariadne on the island of Naxos may reveal anything about the residents of the House of the Colored Capitals.
It replied: "A mural of Bacchus (Dionysus) finding Ariadne on the island of Naxos in the House of the Colored Capitals could indeed suggest something significant about the residents' interests, values, or perhaps even their aspirations. This myth carries themes that were appealing in Roman culture and could reflect various symbolic connections with the household:
"Prosperity and Joy: Bacchus, the god of wine, revelry, and transformation, symbolized abundance, pleasure, and the enjoyment of life. His union with Ariadne was associated with renewal and the triumph over despair, as he rescued her after she was abandoned by Theseus. Displaying this scene could indicate that the residents valued Bacchus’s gifts of prosperity, happiness, and renewal, wishing to embody these ideals in their own lives and household.
"Marriage and Fidelity: The story of Bacchus and Ariadne also has strong marital associations, as Bacchus not only rescues but also marries Ariadne, making her his divine consort. For residents of the House of the Colored Capitals, this could symbolize loyalty and enduring love, possibly reflecting their views on marriage or aspirations for a harmonious and committed partnership.
"Artistic and Cultural Refinement: The tale of Bacchus and Ariadne was popular among Roman elites and frequently depicted in high-quality art due to its dramatic narrative and emotional depth. Choosing this scene might indicate that the residents were connoisseurs of mythological art or wished to convey a sense of cultural sophistication and connection to the elite tastes of the period.
"Transformation and New Beginnings: Bacchus rescuing Ariadne from abandonment and leading her to a new, divine life resonates with themes of transformation and renewal. Residents of the house may have identified with the idea of rising from difficulties or starting anew, reflecting personal values or aspirations.
"Thus, this mural could hint at a household that appreciated Bacchus’s themes of joy, renewal, and cultural refinement and perhaps viewed themselves as participants in the elite, cultured world of Pompeii. If the mural was indeed finely executed, it might also suggest that the residents valued or had access to high-quality art, further underscoring their refined tastes."
I then pointed out a number of frescos of Ariadne on Naxos portray her watching tearfully as Theseus sails away but the departing ship of Theseus is not included in this scene. Would this indicate the irrelevance of the past heartbreak?
ChatGPT: "Yes, the exclusion of Theseus’s departing ship from a fresco of Ariadne on Naxos could indeed emphasize a shift away from her past heartbreak. By omitting the image of Theseus sailing away, the focus turns fully to Ariadne's moment of transformation and newfound love with Bacchus (Dionysus), highlighting her transition from abandonment to divine partnership.
"Here’s how this choice deepens the significance of the scene:
"Emphasis on Renewal Over Loss: Leaving out the ship visually removes the cause of her sorrow, allowing the viewer to focus on Bacchus’s arrival and Ariadne’s imminent happiness. This shifts the emotional tone from one of loss to one of anticipation and joy, marking Theseus’s betrayal as irrelevant to her future.
"Symbol of Destiny and Transformation: Without Theseus’s ship, the fresco underscores Bacchus’s role as a divine rescuer. Bacchus and Ariadne’s love becomes the central narrative, representing her ultimate destiny and reinforcing themes of divine favor and renewal. The lack of reference to Theseus suggests that Ariadne’s journey was always meant to lead her to Bacchus.
"Encouragement of Positive Themes: For Roman viewers, this framing aligns with Bacchic ideals of celebration, prosperity, and divine union. The choice to portray her without the departing ship could indicate a conscious focus on positive themes, perhaps appealing to residents who valued joy, fidelity, and transformation, as opposed to sorrow or betrayal.
"This artistic decision subtly affirms that Ariadne's past is no longer relevant, drawing all attention to her future with Bacchus and the blessings associated with this union."
This made me wonder if the ship's absence could point to the residents being freedmen who wished to emphasize their current success and improvement in social standing without dwelling on their former servitude.
ChatGPT: "Absolutely, this interpretation aligns well with the symbolism of Ariadne’s transformation and could suggest that the residents of the House of the Colored Capitals were freedmen eager to highlight their current status and prosperity while distancing themselves from a past of servitude. In Roman society, freedmen often sought to showcase their success, wealth, and integration into respectable social circles, and choosing a myth that highlights personal elevation and divine favor would resonate with such aspirations.
"Here’s how this fresco might align with a freedman household's values:
"Transformation and Social Advancement: Ariadne’s transition from abandonment to divine favor mirrors the freedman experience of moving from enslavement to freedom and, often, significant economic success. Bacchus’s intervention symbolizes not just salvation but an elevation to a higher status, much like the freedman’s journey from servitude to social participation.
"Divine Blessing and Legitimacy: Freedmen often aspired to legitimize their status by emphasizing themes of divine blessing and favor. A scene that ignores Ariadne’s past sorrow and focuses on her divine acceptance could metaphorically communicate that the household, too, has left the hardships of the past behind, now enjoying the favor and benefits of the present.
"Avoiding Stigma: Roman society sometimes stigmatized freedmen, particularly in social and political spheres. By selecting a narrative that celebrates joy, love, and acceptance without visible references to past misfortune, the residents could be reinforcing their right to their newfound status and success, subtly encouraging visitors to recognize their present identity and achievements over their origins.
"Alignment with Bacchic Themes: Bacchus was a popular figure among freedmen, especially within Pompeii, where Bacchic mysteries and rites were embraced as symbols of community and transformation. Celebrating Bacchus’s transformative power through a scene like this could indicate the residents’ identification with Bacchic values, blending personal and spiritual rebirth in a way that freedmen, in particular, found appealing.
"Thus, the choice of this fresco in the House of the Colored Capitals could indeed reflect the residents’ focus on their current prosperity, symbolic rebirth, and integration into society, quietly setting aside any allusion to a past that may have been restrictive or challenging."
If you enjoyed this post, never miss out on future posts by following me by email!


Could a well-executed mural depicting the myth of Neptune and Amymone point to a Pompeii resident's involvement with the management of water?

 by Mary Harrsch © 2024

Continuing to explore the lithographs produced from the paintings of Henri Roux, I next examined the lithograph labeled Neptune and Amymone. I searched Pompeiiinpictures.com and found it in the House of the Anchor aka House of the Black Anchor. I also found a drawing there by Giuseppe Marsigli that had several distinct differences. In Marsigli's painting, Neptune wears a fisherman's cap and he is much more naturally posed with his hair in ringlets rather than the casually rendered hair in Roux's painting. I noticed Raoul-Rochette mentioned the figure of Neptune in Roux's painting appears to suffer from "rapid execution" so maybe the Neptune figure was painted from memory after Roux left the site. Amymone, on the other hand, appears to closely resemble the Danaid in Marsigli's painting so perhaps it was rendered while the artist was still working at the site.

House of the Anchor VI 10,7 pre-1846 Amymone and Poseidon (Neptune) from south wall of room on south side of entrance

Giuseppe Marsigli's drawing of Neptune and Amymone from the House of the Anchor (Pompeii VI 10,7)

When I did a search on pompeiiinpictures.com for Amymone, I found links to six different paintings although only one, a poorly preserved painting of Neptune and Amymone in the House of M. Fabius Rufus came close to the quality of execution of the mural that once graced the House of the Anchor. I asked ChatGPT the significance of the myth to the Romans and it replied:
"Several factors made the myth appealing to the Romans:
"Symbol of Water and Prosperity: Water was a precious resource in the ancient world, especially in the Mediterranean. Poseidon’s creation of a spring for Amymone would have symbolized divine control over water and nature. For Romans, the myth of Amymone represented the gods’ ability to provide essential resources, crucial for agriculture and urban life.
"Divine Protection and Intervention: Amymone’s rescue by Poseidon highlighted the protective aspect of the gods. In Roman values, divine intervention by gods in mortal affairs was seen as a blessing, reinforcing the idea that divine favor brought security and abundance.
"Themes of Fertility and Renewal: Water had clear associations with fertility and the renewal of life. This myth celebrated the life-giving properties of water, aligning with rituals for agricultural productivity. The scene of Poseidon striking the earth and creating water could symbolically echo the renewing aspects of marriage and procreation, which were central to Roman society and values.
"Artistic Appeal: The myth offered a dramatic scene that lent itself well to Pompeian wall paintings. The contrast between the earthly and the divine, the interaction between a god and mortal, and the backdrop of nature could create vivid, attractive compositions suited to frescoes.
"In Pompeii, particularly in wealthy households, such frescoes might convey the hope for prosperity, divine protection, and favor, aligning with the ideals of a flourishing household blessed by the gods."
Since the myth's core message is the value of water and I know the House of the Anchor has a very large garden on its lower level that obviously required a great deal of water, I asked ChatGPT if the quality of the mural might suggest the resident had some connection with management of the water supply in Pompeii. It replied:
"A well-executed mural of Neptune and Amymone in the House of the Anchor could suggest a symbolic connection to water management, especially since Neptune (Poseidon) was revered as the god of the sea and fresh water. In Pompeii, where securing a steady water supply was essential and challenging, individuals involved in aqueduct maintenance, well-digging, or water distribution might have chosen such imagery to reflect their profession or status.
"The association of Neptune with water resources would make him a fitting figure for residents connected to water-related occupations, particularly as the Romans valued water engineers, aqueduct officials, and those who facilitated water access. Displaying a mural of Neptune could also reflect a desire for divine blessing in matters of water—possibly to ensure a bountiful supply or protection from scarcity, especially in a location as dry as Pompeii.
"Moreover, Amymone’s myth emphasizes the provision of water as a life-sustaining force, aligning with a role in public water management. If the resident held a civic position related to water or was wealthy enough to sponsor such projects, a mural like this could act as a statement of their contributions to the community’s welfare."
If you enjoyed this post, never miss out on future posts by following me by email!


Jupiter and Juno on Mount Ida in the House of the Tragic Poet - wedding or seduction?

by Mary Harrsch © 2024

Another of the lithographs of Henri Roux's paintings I discovered yesterday is entitled "Jupiter and Juno on Mount Ida". The house where it came from, again, was not specified but when I translated the related chapter Raoul-Rochette mentioned it was from the same house as a fresco with Achilles and Breiseis. I am familiar with that fresco and know it is in the House of the Tragic Poet (VI 8,3) so I checked and matched the lithograph with the fresco known as the Marriage of Zeus and Hera (Jupiter and Juno). But I was surprised that Raoul-Rochette did not associate the scene with a marriage. Instead, he expressed his opinion that the fresco depicts a scene from the Iliad where Juno, adorned with all her natural charms, to which she has also added all those that art could provide her, including the cestus of Venus, which she borrowed, with the help of a lie, from the goddess of beauty, goes to Jupiter, who was then sitting on the summit of Ida, with the intention of seducing him, and making him forget, in her arms, the quarrel between the Greeks and the Trojans.

Jupiter and Juno from Pompeii by Henri Roux lithography by Raoul Rochette 1854 

original fresco from the House of the Tragic Poet preserved in the Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli.

He provides the reasons for this identity: "...beginning with the place of the scene. It is a mountain, on which stands a Doric column, the capital of which supports a tablet notched in three places and decorated with three figures of lions, and whose shaft is encircled with a strip used to suspend two flutes and two bells, with a tympanum below. From such objects, it is impossible to fail to recognize Mount Ida, the primitive seat of the mysteries of the goddess of Phrygia, whose symbolic animal was the lion, and who had as instruments of her worship, used from all antiquity, bells, flutes and the tympanum. It is therefore on Mount Ida that the action represented in our painting takes place.
"The principal character recognizes himself, at first glance, as the king of the gods, by his tall stature, in his costume and attributes. He is seated on a rock of Ida; the pallium with which he is dressed, and which leaves the front part of his body bare, covers the back of his head, a peculiarity which suits Jupiter in the situation in which he finds himself, and which is moreover not without examples on the monuments of ancient art. He has his forehead encircled with the crown of oak, which is the proper and characteristic attribute of the Hellenic god, of the Dodonian Jupiter, and he holds the scepter, the ordinary attribute of the king of the gods. With such signs, which made the presence of the eagle and the thunderbolt less necessary, with which the images of Jupiter are not always accompanied, it was impossible to misrecognize this god in the situation indicated by Homer, retired on Mount Ida to contemplate more closely the successes of the people he favors. Unfortunately the face of the god has suffered an attack which deprives us of the sight of part of his features; and I preferred to represent faithfully the painting in its state of imperfection, than to supplement it arbitrarily, as the Neapolitan editor, Mr. Inghirami, and Sir W. Gell have done. I am an enemy of this process of restoration, which has filled the whole domain of antiquity with so many false notions; and this is why the paintings of Pornpei which will be part of this collection will be given as they are, without changing anything, without adding anything.
"Before the god there appears a goddess who, by the majesty of her gait, the nobility of her figure and the richness of her costume, manifests herself as Juno; this is how she was first named, and this is what she must be in fact. She is standing, and shows herself full face, in all the dignity of her person. Her forehead is adorned with a high Stephane, above which has passed the peplius that Minerva had woven for her with her learned hands; her face radiates a proud and truly divine beauty, and the grandeur and brilliance of her eyes correspond well to the Homeric description. She is dressed in a long tunic, richly embroidered, which leaves uncovered her beautiful arms praised by Homer; and, by a feeling of modesty, or rather of coquetry, always serious, as befits Juno, and which, moreover, agrees marvelously with the movement of her whole person and with the expression of her face, she holds up in front of her a piece of the peplus which covers her head and shoulders. This is the moment when Jupiter, who has taken her left arm to draw her to him, expresses to her, in the terms we know from Homer, the desires he feels for her, and when Juno opposes to the impatient ardor of her husband delays which have the object of irritating him still.
"A third character witnesses this scene, at once august and voluptuous: she is a winged woman, who is recognized by this sign as a divine character; she is dressed in a long green tunic, which is appropriate for a divinity of the air; and she seems, by her whole attitude, to push Juno into the arms of Jupiter. If we stick to the Homeric data, where Juno, on her way to Ida, was accompanied only by the god of sleep, but without this god himself being a witness to the interview of the two spouses, we could see here Pasithea, the wife of Sleep, as we know her from another painting in Pompeii, on the subject of which the opinions of antiquarians are not yet fixed; and this explanation of the figure in question was proposed by Ott. Müller, on the hypothesis that our painting represented Jupiter and Juno on Mount Ida. But I find it even more probable to recognize in this third character Iris, the messenger of the gods, who could alone, in this capacity, be present at the most secret interviews of the supreme couple of Olympus. Moreover, it was, according to Theocritus, Iris who had, in a similar circumstance, prepared the nuptial bed of Jupiter and Juno, and who had served as pronuba for their clandestine union. The same Iris could therefore well intervene in the conjugal scene that we have before our eyes, and where her presence is authorized by all the testimonies of antiquity.
"Most antiquarians have agreed in recognizing, in the three figures of young men, of lesser stature, seated, in various postures, on one of the lower steps of Ida, and crowned with leaves, the three Curetes or Corybantes, whose connections with the orgies of Cybele and with the birth of Jupiter are well known, which had taken place on Ida, or else the three Idaean Dactyls, mystical characters of the same order, or finally the three Cabiri, who, following a poetic tradition, had attended, on a height near Pergamum and consequently Ida, the birth of Jupiter. Between these three explanations, which differ less from each other in substance than in terms, since they relate to characters who must have been, in principle, as many, of diverse expressions of the same mythological thought, that which gives to these three young people the name of the three Curetes, without taking into account the manner in which they are represented here, and which is doubtless not in conformity with the hieratic costume, seems to me the most likely; and it is the one that I had first adopted. Moreover, the circumstance that these three figures are of a much lesser proportion than those of Jupiter, Juno and even Iris, is one of those acts of convention employed by ancient art, which seems to prove that our painting is derived from some model of an ancient school. This presumption is in agreement with the gravity of the composition and with the severity of the style which distinguish this painting, one of the most remarkable, in this respect, which have been taken from the ruins of Pompeii, and very commendable also for the execution, although it is below that of Achilles and Breseis, of the same house. But, in considering it as a weak imitation, without doubt, of a painting of a high Greek school, one does not risk being mistaken; and one acquires with this reminiscence, due to the last period of ancient painting, one of the most precious monuments of this art, which has perished entirely and irreparably in its masterpieces of every kind."
Zeus and Hera did marry on Mount Ida so the first three sections of Raoul-Rochette's interpretation identifying Ida as the location and the figures of Zeus and Hera coincide with the modern interpretation. So I thought perhaps the difference rested on the identification of the winged attendant and the three small male figures.
Raoul-Rochette identifies the third figure as Iris so I asked ChatGPT about the significance of Iris at a wedding ceremony.
"If we accept that the winged figure is Iris, her presence supports the notion that this scene has a formal or ceremonial aspect rather than purely romantic. In mythology, Iris's participation in the marriage or union of Zeus and Hera lends a ceremonial and sacred dimension, indicating that the fresco might depict a ritualized reunion or even a reaffirmation of their bond."
So if the third figure is not the distinguishing character then I thought perhaps the three small male attendants might hold the key. But, although wreathed, these significantly smaller figures are not featured with any attributes that would nail the identification either.
Raoul-Rochette suggests they could be the Corybantes, associated with ecstatic worship, music and protective frenzy. But Corybantes are typically depicted as armed who perform wild, shield-clashing dances. He also suggests they could be Idaean Dactyls, renowned as master metalworkers and there are no objects present to support this theory. Then he suggests they could be the Cabiri. But, the Cabiri are often depicted with symbols related to fertility, such as seeds, fruits, and cornucopias and none of those are present in the fresco.
ChatGPT suggested they may represent lesser-known male deities or spirits associated with marriage or family, such as Hymenaios, the god of marriage ceremonies, who is often depicted as a youthful figure accompanying weddings. I asked if he were considered a minor god, though, and depicted significantly smaller than Zeus or Hera in ancient art.
"Hymenaios as a lesser deity, would typically be depicted on a much smaller scale than major gods like Zeus or Hera in ancient art. Hymenaios was the god of marriage and the personification of the wedding hymn, but he was considered a minor deity. This often meant he would appear less prominently or with a smaller stature in art, especially when shown alongside the chief gods.
"His usual iconography includes attributes like a marriage torch, wreath, or garland, and he sometimes appears holding these in celebration. Though often youthful, Hymenaios was generally presented as a secondary figure, a supporting presence rather than the central focus, which could indeed justify his smaller size in such a scene.
"The presence of Hymenaios would also reinforce a wedding interpretation, as his very role was to sanctify and preside over marital unions, especially divine ones. His inclusion—especially depicted small, humble, and celebratory—would be fitting as part of the entourage in a marriage scene involving Zeus and Hera. "
The three little male figures are wearing celebratory wreaths so this would seem to support the modern interpretation of the scene as a marriage ceremony. The only other thing I could think of that would support the 19th century interpretation was consistency of the fresco with other frescos in the atrium. All but one portray scenes from the Trojan War. One, however, is identified as a fresco of Alcestis learning about the death sentence of her husband, Admetus. Alcestis ultimately sacrifices herself in his place. This fresco may have other interpretations but the presence of Artemis, who was offended when Admetus forgot to sacrifice to Artemis at his wedding to Alcestis points to a correct identification.
Back in 2016, I wrote an article about my interpretation of the frescos and their intended messages for clients waiting in the atrium for the morning salutatio entitled "House of the Tragic Poet: What's love got to do with it?"
I focused on messages related to superior and subordinate relationships rather than any allusion to love, so my analysis of the intended messages if the atrium is viewed as an example of a memory house would not be affected if the "Marriage of Zeus and Hera" would be interpreted either way. Still, I found exploring the different interpretations of the fresco fascinating.
If you enjoyed this post, never miss out on future posts by following me by email!