by Mary Harrsch © 2024
In my examination of frescos depicting Dido and Aeneas, I came across a painting that was identified as Artemis and Callisto in the House of Cornelius Diadumenus (VII 12,26) but pompeiiinpictures.com pointed out was suspected of being Dido and Aeneas by American classicist Lawrence Richardson Jr. With this in mind I studied the fresco more closely and I think Richardson is correct.
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| House of Cornelius Diadumenus (VII 12,26) Pompeii Found on west wall in triclinium room on left hand side behind atrium traditionally identified as Artemis and Callisto |
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| House of Cornelius Diadumenus (VII 12,25) Pompeii Drawing by Nicola La Volpe, of painting of Artemis and Callisto or Dido and Aeneas from the central panel of the west wall of triclinium |
The figure on the left is depicting a male. The figure on the right is a crowned female sitting on a throne with Cupid appearing to be urging her toward a romantic relationship. In the background is a noblewoman as denoted by her simple ribbon diadem. The two figures in the background on the right are two attendants of the queen (as in the depiction of Dido in the fresco from the House of Meleager.) I think the Dido figure was confused with Artemis because there is a quiver and an arrow on the left side of Dido on the ground. But I think these objects are meant to foreshadow the coming royal hunt devised by Venus and Juno to bring the lovers together.
ChatGPT explains: "In Book IV of the Aeneid, Dido organizes a royal hunt, which becomes a pivotal event in her relationship with Aeneas. The hunt begins as a public display of leadership and unity but quickly turns into a private, fateful encounter between Dido and Aeneas.
"During the hunt, a storm sent by Juno scatters the group, and Dido and Aeneas are led to a cave where their love affair begins. This moment marks a turning point: Dido’s passion for Aeneas becomes consuming, leading her to neglect her duties as queen, which ultimately contributes to her downfall.
Symbolism of Hunting in Dido’s Story:
"Pursuit and Vulnerability: In classical literature, hunting often symbolizes pursuit, whether literal or metaphorical. Dido, who initially appears as a strong and independent queen, becomes metaphorically "hunted" by fate, the gods, and her emotions. Aeneas, too, can be seen as a "hunter" in the sense that his presence disrupts her carefully constructed life.
"The imagery of the hunt reflects the inevitability of her tragedy. Just as a hunter ultimately claims their prey, Dido is ensnared by her love for Aeneas, manipulated by divine forces, and ultimately abandoned. Her role shifts from a figure of power to one of vulnerability, highlighting the cruel forces of fate and duty.
"In a deeper sense, Dido's story mirrors the structure of a hunt, with her initial strength as queen (the hunter) transforming into her tragic role as the prey of love, divine will, and political necessity.
"In Roman frescoes, hunting motifs are often associated with themes of leadership, prowess, and conquest. If Dido is ever depicted in a hunting context in visual art, it may serve as a metaphor for her strength as a ruler or as a foreshadowing of her vulnerability. For instance, a queen in a hunting scene could symbolize mastery over her domain, but it might also suggest her eventual "capture" by love and fate.
"In conclusion, Dido’s association with hunting in the Aeneid is rich with symbolism, portraying her as both a commanding leader and a tragic figure ensnared by forces beyond her control. The hunt becomes a metaphor for her inner conflict, blending themes of love, power, and destiny into her narrative arc."
The other noble lady with the simple ribbon diadem in the scene could be Anna, Dido's sister. Anna is Dido's confidante and adviser in Virgil's Aeneid. She encourages Dido's union with Aeneas, hoping it will strengthen Carthage politically and emotionally heal her sister. Including Anna would emphasize the familial bonds and counsel that shaped Dido's actions, making her a key supporting figure in the drama.
ChatGPT points out: "A simple diadem could signify Anna's noble status as the sister of a queen. It would elevate her visually to reflect her importance in the narrative and her close connection to Dido.
"Anna’s role as Dido’s confidante and adviser aligns well with her presence in a scene of Dido and Aeneas, particularly if the fresco depicts a moment of counsel or dramatic interaction."
I pointed out Anna is separated from the other two attendants and between Aeneas and Dido with the Cupid figure in the foreground representing the sister's efforts to bring the couple together.
ChatGPT explains: "Anna’s position between Dido and Aeneas is a clear visual cue that she is attempting to bridge the gap between the two. In the Aeneid, Anna actively encourages Dido to embrace her love for Aeneas, believing it to be politically advantageous and personally fulfilling for her sister.
"The physical separation between Anna and the other attendants emphasizes her elevated status and unique role in the drama—she is not merely a passive courtly figure but an active participant in the emotional and political dynamics.
Cupid as a Symbol of Anna’s Role:
"The Cupid figure appealing to Dido could represent Anna’s persuasion to bring Dido and Aeneas together. In Roman art, Cupid often symbolizes the divine or emotional forces driving love. His inclusion might reinforce Anna’s argument that the union between Dido and Aeneas is fated or divinely inspired, a key point in the narrative.
Dido’s Position and Response:
"Dido’s seated posture on the throne and her crowned head affirm her status as queen, yet her body language might suggest contemplation, hesitation, or internal conflict. This aligns with her torn feelings between duty to her people and love for Aeneas.
"The throne also serves to ground her in Carthage’s political realm, while the appeals of Anna and Cupid attempt to pull her toward a personal, emotional decision.
Anna as a Foreshadowing Figure:
"If Anna’s placement highlights her advocacy for Dido’s love, it also tragically foreshadows her unwitting role in Dido’s downfall. In supporting the relationship, Anna becomes an instrument of the divine plan that ultimately leads to Dido’s despair and death.
The Artistic and Symbolic Harmony:
"The placement of the figures, combined with their attributes and gestures, creates a layered narrative where personal, political, and divine forces converge. Anna, as both a loyal sister and a persuasive intermediary, is pivotal to this dynamic, and her visual separation from the attendants reinforces her unique narrative function...the Cupid figure amplifies this interpretation, adding depth to Anna’s role as a symbolic and literal advocate for the union. This scene masterfully intertwines the personal tragedy of Dido with the broader themes of duty and destiny, making Anna's central placement even more meaningful."
As for the fresco's interpretation as Artemis and Callisto, ChatGPT thinks the presence of a male figure poses a significant challenge to the Artemis-Callisto interpretation.
"In myths, Callisto's story is typically portrayed as a conflict between Artemis and Callisto, with no significant role for a male figure in their interactions...Callisto was punished by Artemis for her pregnancy after Zeus’s seduction, but this scene is typically shown in visual art as one of discovery or chastisement—not as a seated dialogue or council.
"The presence of the quiver and arrow on the ground beside the seated female figure could indeed symbolize the royal hunt mentioned in the Aeneid. This hunt, orchestrated by Venus and Juno, serves as a pivotal moment for Dido and Aeneas’ burgeoning romance.
"In contrast, if the scene were Artemis and Callisto, the quiver would typically be in Artemis’s possession as a sign of her dominion over the hunt. The fact that it is placed on the ground could suggest a symbolic rather than literal presence, tying it to the hunt as a narrative device."
I pointed out to ChatGPT that it mentioned the owner of the House of Cornelius Diadumenus was probably owned by a freedman of Greek descent based on his name. So I asked, "How does a prominent image depicting a scene from the Aeneid change the suggestion of the owner's character, education, or social status?
ChatGPT replied: "The presence of a prominent fresco depicting a scene from Virgil’s Aeneid in a home like the House of Cornelius Diadumenus provides fascinating insights into the character, education, and social ambitions of its owner. Here's how this detail might adjust our understanding of the owner's identity and cultural standing:
Aspirations of Roman Identity
"The choice of a theme from the Aeneid, the foundational epic of Roman identity, suggests that the owner sought to associate himself with the cultural values of Rome.
"If Cornelius Diadumenus was a freedman of Greek descent, this fresco could reflect an intentional effort to project integration into Roman society. Freedmen often used public displays of Roman culture in their homes to emphasize their loyalty to Rome and their acceptance of its ideals.
Demonstration of Education and Sophistication
"The Aeneid was a cornerstone of Roman education and literature. By commissioning a fresco depicting Dido and Aeneas, the owner demonstrated familiarity with one of Rome's most revered texts, signaling his literary sophistication.
"For a freedman, literacy and knowledge of elite Roman literature were powerful markers of upward mobility. This fresco may suggest that Cornelius Diadumenus was an educated individual, aware of the cultural importance of Virgil’s work and eager to showcase it in his home.
Social and Political Messaging
"The Aeneid is steeped in themes of duty, piety (pietas), and the sacrifices necessary for greatness. A scene featuring Dido and Aeneas reflects a key moment in the narrative: Aeneas must choose duty over love, abandoning Dido to fulfill his destiny as the founder of Rome.
"The display of such a story could indicate that the owner sought to align himself with these virtues, subtly promoting his loyalty to Rome and an understanding of the empire’s mythic origins. It could also symbolize sacrifices the owner made in his own life to achieve freedom and status.
Statement of Wealth and Artistic Patronage
"High-quality frescoes, especially those depicting complex mythological or literary scenes, were not inexpensive. Commissioning such art would demonstrate the owner’s economic resources and ability to engage skilled artisans, reflecting his status within Pompeii’s social hierarchy.
"A freedman owning an elegant home with richly decorated rooms, including a fresco based on Virgil, signifies a desire to emulate the tastes and lifestyles of the Roman elite.
Connection to Greek and Roman Fusion
"If Cornelius Diadumenus was of Greek descent, his inclusion of a Roman epic scene could also reflect the cultural blending of Greek and Roman traditions. Greeks in the Roman Empire often embraced Roman myths and literature while retaining elements of their own heritage.
"The Aeneid itself has strong ties to Greek epic traditions (e.g., Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey), and the depiction of Dido and Aeneas could serve as a nod to this shared literary heritage, appealing to both Greek and Roman audiences.
Entertaining and Impressing Guests
"Homes in Pompeii often used elaborate decorations to impress visitors and reflect the owner’s values and identity. This fresco, likely located in a prominent room such as a triclinium (dining room) or atrium, would have served as a conversation piece, allowing the owner to display his knowledge of Roman literature and cultural sophistication to guests.
"The specific scene of Dido and Aeneas may have resonated with themes of hospitality and the dynamics of love and duty, making it a fitting subject for a space where social gatherings occurred.
Challenges to Traditional Roman Hierarchies
"Freedmen like Cornelius Diadumenus were often wealthy and influential but faced societal prejudice due to their origins. By prominently displaying a scene from a Roman literary masterpiece, the owner might have been subtly challenging the idea of cultural exclusivity, asserting that freedmen could participate in and contribute to elite Roman culture.
Conclusion
"This fresco elevates our understanding of Cornelius Diadumenus as a person who likely sought to bridge his background with Roman ideals, using art as a medium to articulate his aspirations, education, and loyalty. It reinforces the idea that freedmen in Pompeii were active participants in Roman cultural life, not merely passive adopters of elite tastes, but contributors with nuanced understandings of myth, literature, and art. Such a scene also emphasizes how mythological imagery served not only as decoration but as a deliberate statement of identity and ambition."
Then I asked, "Since the Aeneid was published during the reign of Augustus and Virgil was recognized as patronized by the emperor, could this be an overt attempt to identify the owner of the house with Augustus' policies? Could it point to Diadumenus as a member of the Augustales?"
ChatGPT replied: "Your suggestion that the fresco of Dido and Aeneas in the House of Cornelius Diadumenus might align the owner with Augustan policies and hint at his potential membership in the Augustales is compelling. Here’s how the connection might work:
Alignment with Augustan Ideals
"The Aeneid is intrinsically tied to Augustan propaganda, portraying Aeneas as a model of pietas (devotion to the gods, family, and Rome) and linking his journey to the eventual founding of Rome and Augustus' rule.
"By prominently displaying a scene from the Aeneid, particularly one involving Aeneas, the owner could be signaling support for Augustan ideals of duty, sacrifice, and Rome’s destiny, thereby aligning himself with the emperor’s cultural and political vision.
Membership in the Augustales
"The Augustales were a religious order of freedmen dedicated to the worship of the emperor and his family. These men often held positions of prominence within their communities and sought to emphasize their loyalty to Rome and Augustus as a means of gaining status and recognition.
"Displaying a fresco of Aeneas, a mythic figure closely tied to Augustus’ lineage (through the Julian claim to descent from Venus), could be interpreted as a deliberate assertion of loyalty to the imperial family.
"Membership in the Augustales would also provide Cornelius Diadumenus, a freedman, with a form of social legitimacy and prestige within Pompeian society. The fresco may reflect his engagement in imperial cult activities or his aspirations to belong to this elite group.
Symbol of Romanization and Social Integration
"Freedmen, especially those of Greek descent like Diadumenus, often adopted Roman cultural symbols to demonstrate their integration into Roman society.
By commissioning a fresco tied to the Aeneid, the owner would be showcasing his knowledge of Roman literature while signaling his participation in the broader cultural project of Romanization promoted by Augustus.
Wealth and the Augustales
"Membership in the Augustales required a certain level of wealth since members often funded public works, games, or festivals to honor the emperor. The presence of such a high-quality fresco suggests that Cornelius Diadumenus may have had the economic means to participate in this kind of public benefaction.
"If the house contained additional indications of wealth (e.g., elaborate decorations, fine dining areas), these could further support the hypothesis that the owner had the financial resources and social ambition typical of an Augustales member.
Augustus’ Policies in Pompeii
"Augustus actively promoted the Aeneid and its themes throughout the empire. In cities like Pompeii, his policies encouraged the display of loyalty to Roman values through art, literature, and public works.
"The choice of Dido and Aeneas, a story centered on love, destiny, and sacrifice, would resonate with Augustan themes, such as the importance of personal sacrifice for the greater good of Rome. Aeneas' eventual rejection of Dido for the sake of his divine mission mirrors Augustus’ emphasis on duty over personal desire.
An Augustales Connection
"The fresco’s inclusion of Cupid and its focus on Dido and Aeneas’ relationship may also hint at broader connections to Augustus. Cupid’s role as a symbol of love and divine intervention links to Augustus’ propagation of his divine lineage through Venus.
"If Diadumenus was a member of the Augustales, this imagery could also serve as a personal statement of his role in supporting the imperial family, especially since the cult was heavily involved in promoting Augustus' divine status and legacy.
Conclusion: The Augustales Hypothesis
"While there is no direct evidence linking Cornelius Diadumenus to the Augustales, the fresco’s themes strongly align with imperial ideology and Augustan values. Its presence in the home of a wealthy freedman suggests an intentional effort to reflect loyalty to Rome and Augustus.
"The Aeneid’s widespread cultural significance during Augustus’ reign makes the fresco a plausible symbol of the owner’s desire to be associated with Roman ideals and perhaps an aspiration or acknowledgment of his status as an Augustales member.
"Further supporting evidence, such as inscriptions or additional iconography in the house, would strengthen this interpretation. However, even without it, the fresco underscores the owner's deep engagement with Augustan-era cultural narratives."
I'll explore additional iconography in the house and its relationship to this fresco in my next post!
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