Roman Times: Architectural differences between Etruscan-influenced Pompeii and Greek-influenced Herculaneum

Lately, during my afternoon rest period, I've begun to watch The Great Courses lecture series "The Mysterious Etruscans" presented by Professor Steven Tuck of Miami University. I bought the course years ago but had too many projects going to watch it. As is often the case with Great Courses programs, I learned something new in the very first lecture. Dr. Tuck was describing the contentious relationship between the Etruscans who built the outpost that would become the thriving trading center known as Pompeii and the Greeks who colonized Magna Graecia, including Herculaneum.

I knew the Etruscans had joined with other Italic tribes to oppose Roman expansion into Campania but I did not realize the city of Pompeii itself was initially founded by the Etruscans. I have read about Greek influence in Pompeii and had just assumed Pompeii itself was culturally Greek before its conquest by the Romans.

So, although both cities had come under Roman control in the 4th century BCE, I became immediately curious about differences in art and architecture between structures in what was once Etruscan Pompeii compared to Greek-influenced homes in Herculaneum, so I asked Google's Bard AI about it.

Mary: Are there distinctive differences stylistically or thematically between the architecture and urban layout found at Pompeii and architecture and urban layout found at Herculaneum that reflect the cultural differences between the Etruscans who founded Pompeii and the colonial Greeks who founded Herculaneum?

Greek-influenced House of the Mosaic atrium IV,2 Herculaneum, Looking north-east across impluvium in the atrium. Photo courtesy of Michael Binns

Bard:

"Yes, there are distinctive differences stylistically or thematically between the architecture and urban layout found at Pompeii and architecture and urban layout found at Herculaneum that reflect the cultural differences between the Etruscans who founded Pompeii and the colonial Greeks who founded Herculaneum.

"Pompeii

"Etruscan Influence: Pompeii's early architecture and urban layout reflect Etruscan influences, characterized by:

Irregular and organic street patterns

Raised podiums for temples

Deep porches (pronaoi) for temples

Triangular pediments for temples

"Roman Adaptation: Under Roman rule, Pompeii's architecture and urban layout adopted Roman conventions, including:

Rectangular temple bases

Peristyle courtyards surrounding temples

Columned porches for temples

Grid-based street patterns with central plazas (agoras)

Herculaneum

"Greek Influence: Herculaneum's architecture and urban layout show strong Greek influences, evident in:

Regular and orthogonal street patterns

Temples with rectangular bases and peristyle courtyards

Use of marble and other imported materials

Greek-style theaters and public buildings

"Roman Assimilation: As Herculaneum became more Romanized, its architecture and urban layout incorporated Roman elements, such as:

Roman temples with columned porches

Roman baths and recreational facilities

Roman-style domestic architecture

"These differences reflect the distinct cultural backgrounds of Pompeii's Etruscan founders and Herculaneum's Greek colonists. The Etruscans' emphasis on practicality and local materials is evident in Pompeii's early structures, while the Greeks' focus on order, symmetry, and aesthetics is reflected in Herculaneum's architecture and urban planning.

"Despite these differences, both Pompeii and Herculaneum shared common features of Roman urbanism, such as grid-based street patterns, public spaces, and a mix of residential, commercial, and religious structures. Both cities flourished during the Roman era, serving as important commercial centers and cultural hubs in southern Italy."

Mary: Are there distinctive differences stylistically or thematically between the art found at Pompeii and art found at Herculaneum that reflect these cultural differences?

Bard:

"Yes, there are some stylistic and thematic differences between the art found at Pompeii and Herculaneum that reflect the cultural differences between the two cities.

"Pompeii, as an Etruscan city, displayed a strong Etruscan influence in its art. Etruscan art was characterized by its realism, narrative content, and use of symbolism. For example, Etruscan frescoes often depicted mythological scenes, and Etruscan sculptures were often life-size and realistic.

"Herculaneum, on the other hand, was a Greek colony, and its art reflected a strong Greek influence. Greek art was characterized by its idealism, balance, and use of geometry. For example, Greek frescoes often depicted idealized figures, and Greek sculptures were often based on mathematical principles.

"Here are some specific examples of the stylistic and thematic differences between the art of Pompeii and Herculaneum:

"Pompeian frescoes are often more crowded and chaotic than Herculanean frescoes. This is because Etruscan art was more concerned with realism and narrative content, while Greek art was more concerned with idealism and balance.

"Pompeian sculptures are often more life-size and realistic than Herculanean sculptures. This is because Etruscan art was more concerned with realism, while Greek art was more concerned with idealism.

"Pompeian mosaics are often more colorful and intricate than Herculanean mosaics. This is because Etruscan art was more ornate and decorative, while Greek art was more restrained and elegant. Here are some specific examples of the stylistic and thematic differences between the art of Pompeii and Herculaneum:

"Pompeian mosaics are often more colorful and intricate than Herculanean mosaics. This is because Etruscan art was more ornate and decorative, while Greek art was more restrained and elegant.

"Of course, there was also some cross-pollination between the art of Pompeii and Herculaneum. This is because the two cities were located close together and there was a lot of trade and cultural exchange between them. However, the overall stylistic and thematic differences between the art of the two cities reflect the different cultural backgrounds of the two populations."

Since few structures erected before the 2nd century BCE remain, I used that point in time to see if any architectural remains in Pompeii reflected Etruscan influence compared to Greek-influenced remains in Herculaneum.

Mary: Were Greek-style temples still present in Herculaneum in the 2nd century BCE?

Bard:

"It is likely that Greek-style temples were still present in Herculaneum in the 2nd century BCE. While Herculaneum was a Roman city by this time, it had a strong cultural connection to Greece and continued to adopt Greek architectural styles.

"Evidence suggests that Greek-style temples existed in Herculaneum during this period. For instance, archaeological excavations have unearthed remnants of a temple dedicated to Athena, the Greek goddess of wisdom, dating back to the 4th century BCE. This temple was likely still in use during the 2nd century BCE.

"Moreover, Herculaneum's proximity to Greek colonies in southern Italy, such as Cumae and Neapolis, would have maintained a strong Greek influence on the city's architecture. Greek-style temples were prominent architectural features in these Greek colonies, and their influence would have extended to Herculaneum.

"The continued presence of Greek-style temples in Herculaneum in the 2nd century BCE reflects the enduring cultural ties between Herculaneum and Greece. Despite being a Roman city, Herculaneum preserved its Greek heritage, evident in its architecture, art, and cultural practices.

Mary: Were Etruscan-style temples still present in Pompeii in the 2nd century BCE?

Bard:

"While Pompeii was a Roman city by the 2nd century BCE, there is evidence to suggest that Etruscan-style temples may have still been present in the city. However, the extent to which these temples remained intact and actively used is a matter of debate among historians and archaeologists.

"Pompeii's history is intertwined with the Etruscans, who ruled the region of Campania in southern Italy from the 8th to the 5th century BCE. Etruscan influence on Pompeii's architecture is evident in the city's early temples, which often featured raised podiums, deep porches, and triangular pediments.

"However, as Pompeii transitioned from Etruscan to Roman rule, its architectural style gradually shifted towards Roman conventions. Roman temples typically featured rectangular bases, peristyle courtyards, and columned porches.

"By the 2nd century BCE, Pompeii was a bustling Roman city, and its temples reflected this new architectural style. Examples of these Roman temples include the Temple of Jupiter, the Temple of Venus, and the Temple of Apollo.

"While Roman temples dominated Pompeii's architectural landscape in the 2nd century BCE, it is possible that some Etruscan-style temples may have persisted. These temples may have remained in use for religious purposes or as historical landmarks.

"Archaeological excavations have unearthed remnants of an Etruscan-style temple in Pompeii, suggesting that such structures existed in the city during the 2nd century BCE. However, the extent to which these temples were actively used or preserved is unclear.

"In conclusion, while Etruscan-style temples were likely present in Pompeii in the 2nd century BCE, their prominence had diminished as Roman architectural styles took over. The exact number and state of these temples remain a subject of further investigation.

I was particularly curious if the Temple of Isis in Pompeii reflected any Etruscan influence so I asked about it.

Bard:

"The Temple of Isis in Pompeii exhibits some features that suggest Etruscan influence, although it primarily reflects Roman architectural styles and Egyptian religious symbolism.

"Raised Podium: The temple's raised podium, a platform upon which the temple stood, is a characteristic of Etruscan temple architecture. This elevated position emphasized the temple's sacred importance and separated it from the surrounding buildings.

"Deep Porch: The temple's deep porch, or pronaos, is another Etruscan influence. This deep porch provided a sheltered space for worshippers and rituals before entering the temple's inner sanctum.

"Terracotta Elements: The temple's use of terracotta for decorative elements, such as roof tiles and revetments (wall coverings), is also consistent with Etruscan architectural practices. Terracotta was a readily available and versatile material in the region.

"However, the Temple of Isis also incorporates significant Roman architectural elements and Egyptian religious symbolism, indicating a blend of influences.

"Rectangular Base: The temple's rectangular base is more characteristic of Roman temple architecture than Etruscan temples, which often had triangular or trapezoidal bases.

"Peristyle Courtyard: The temple's peristyle courtyard, surrounded by columns, is a common feature of Roman temples, reflecting their emphasis on symmetry and order.

"Egyptian Motifs: The temple's decoration features Egyptian motifs, such as sphinxes, scarabs, and lotus flowers, reflecting the cult of Isis, an Egyptian goddess who became popular in the Roman world.

"In conclusion, the Temple of Isis in Pompeii represents a fusion of architectural styles and religious influences. While it exhibits some Etruscan features, such as a raised podium, deep porch, and use of terracotta, it also incorporates significant Roman architectural elements and Egyptian religious symbolism, reflecting the cultural and religious diversity of Pompeii in the Roman era."

I wondered if any residential remains in Pompeii dated before the 2nd century BCE still reflected Etruscan influence. Bard considered the House of the Surgeon as a structure that once reflected Etruscan influence in Pompeii (a little difficult to discern now since the home was severely damaged in a World War II bombing raid).

Bard:

"The House of the Surgeon in Pompeii exhibits several features that suggest Etruscan influences, reflecting the cultural exchange between the Etruscans and Romans during the 7th to 4th centuries BCE. The house's use of tufa, a porous volcanic rock, as the primary building material is characteristic of Etruscan architecture. The house's decorative elements, such as mosaics and frescoes, may have incorporated geometric patterns, a common feature of Etruscan art. These geometric motifs often held symbolic significance."

Although the Etruscan's incorporation of columns in their peristyles did reflect an adpatation from Greek architecture, the style and composition of those columns often differed.

Bard:

"The columns in the House of the Surgeon's peristyle were made of tufa, a porous volcanic rock that was commonly used in Etruscan architecture. According to some sources, there were originally 24 columns in the peristyle, but only 23 remain standing today. The columns are Doric in style, which is characterized by their plain, undecorated shafts and capitals with a simple square abacus and a rounded echinus."

Bard also mentioned a realistic bronze statue of a dog that was found in the peristyle of the House of the Surgeon that may reflect an Etruscan influence. This statue, like a number of earlier Etruscan sculptures, was life-sized, measuring 22 inches tall at the shoulder and about 31 inches long from nose to tail.

Bard:

"The statue is of a Molossoid dog, a type of large, muscular dog that was originally bred for guarding and fighting. Molossoid dogs were known for their strength, courage, and loyalty, and they were often depicted in art and literature as symbols of these qualities.

"It is finely detailed and captures the dog's alert and attentive expression. The statue is also notable for its naturalistic pose, which suggests that the sculptor was familiar with the anatomy of dogs."

Bard pointed to the House of the Mosaics as an example of a home illustrating Greek influence in Herculaneum. My first problem was identifying the House of the Mosaics. It was not listed in the index for Herculaneum homes on herculaneum.uk. I asked Bard if the House of the Mosaics was also called the House of the Mosaic Atrium but Bard said no. Later, though, as I continued my queries, Bard referred to the House as also known as the Casa dell' Atrio a mosaic (?). So, I hope I'm comparing the correct residences.

Bard:

"The House of the Mosaics in Herculaneum exhibits several features that suggest strong Greek influence, reflecting the cultural exchange between Greece and Rome during the Hellenistic period (4th to 1st century BCE). The house's overall architectural style, with its emphasis on symmetry, balance, and proportion, aligns with Greek architectural principles.

"The house's two peristyles, garden courtyards surrounded by columns, are a hallmark of Greek architectural style. Peristyles were not as common in Etruscan or early Roman houses, but they became increasingly popular in Roman architecture under Greek influence. The house's use of marble columns, particularly in the peristyles, reflects Greek architectural preferences. Marble was highly valued in Greek culture and was often used in temples, public buildings, and wealthy residences.

"The peristyles in the House of the Mosaics were constructed using brick and faced with marble, reflecting the more refined and luxurious style of the house. The peristyles feature slender Ionic columns, characterized by their fluted shafts and capitals with volutes (spiral scrolls). These Ionic columns reflect the influence of Greek architecture."

Looking through images of the two structures on pompeiiinpictures.com I did notice that The House of the Surgeon's geometric mosaics appear to be more detailed which Bard said are typical of Etruscan decorative style, while those in the House of the Mosaics exhibit simpler, more elegant Greek geometric patterns. Both homes had probably been redecorated during the centuries between Etruscan and Greek control but I noticed after studying archaeological surveys of different houses in Pompeii that, although wall decoration evolved from First to Fourth Styles, mosaic pavements appeared to be rarely removed so I thought a comparison of mosaic styles could be viewed as verification.

I also wondered about any interim Oscan or Samnite influences since the Oscans migrated into the two cities from the central Apennine region of Italy between the 9th - 8th century BCE and became a dominant force in central and southern Italy by the 5th century BCE.

Bard:

They [the Oscans] expanded their territory through a combination of peaceful settlements and military conquests, eventually forming a confederation of city-states.

The Oscans' cultural influence extended beyond their political boundaries. Their language, Oscan, was widely spoken throughout central and southern Italy, and it served as a lingua franca for trade and communication. Oscan inscriptions have been found on a variety of objects, including pottery, coins, and votive offerings, providing valuable insights into their language, culture, and social organization.

While the Oscans gradually assimilated into the expanding Roman Republic in the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE, their language and cultural legacy continued to influence the region for centuries to come.

Mary: Did the Oscans use Etruscan architectural styles or did they have architectural attributes unique to the Oscan culture?

The Oscans adopted some Etruscan architectural styles, particularly in the early stages of their cultural development. However, they also developed their own architectural attributes that reflected their unique cultural identity.

Etruscan Influence on Oscan Architecture

Raised Podiums for Temples: The Oscans adopted the Etruscan practice of constructing temples on raised podiums, elevating the sacred spaces from the surrounding streets and emphasizing their importance.

Deep Porches (Pronaoi) for Temples: The deep porches or pronaoi of Etruscan temples were also incorporated into Oscan architecture, providing sheltered spaces for worshippers and rituals before entering the temple's inner sanctum.

Unique Oscan Architectural Attributes

Rectangular Temple Bases: While some Oscan temples retained the Etruscan triangular pediments, others featured rectangular bases, reflecting a departure from the Etruscan style.

Use of Local Materials: The Oscans often used local materials, such as tufa and limestone, for their buildings, reflecting their adaptation to the natural resources of their region.

Integration of Greek Elements: As the Oscans interacted with Greek colonists in southern Italy, they incorporated Greek architectural elements into their structures, such as columned porches and decorative motifs.

Evolution of Oscan Architecture

Over time, Oscan architecture evolved, blending Etruscan, Greek, and local influences to create a distinct style that reflected their cultural identity. This evolution is evident in the architectural diversity found in Oscan settlements, such as Capua and Benevento.

The Oscans were not merely imitators of Etruscan architecture; they adapted and transformed Etruscan styles while also developing their own unique architectural attributes. Their architecture reflects their cultural interactions with neighboring civilizations [i.e. the Greeks] and their ability to adapt to local conditions. This blending of styles is evident in the use of columned porches, decorative motifs, and rectangular temple bases. Oscan inscriptions, found on various objects in Pompeii, provide valuable insights into their language and culture. These inscriptions often contain religious dedications, personal names, or administrative records.

The Oscans integrated themselves into the population of Herculaneum, too. While Herculaneum was founded by Greek colonists in the 8th century BCE, the Oscans gradually assimilated into the city's population over time. This integration was facilitated by their shared language, Oscan, which was widely spoken in southern Italy.

The Oscans brought their cultural practices and traditions to Herculaneum, and they influenced the city's architecture, art, and religion. For example, Oscan inscriptions and architectural features have been found in Herculaneum, suggesting that the Oscans played a significant role in the city's development.

What about the Samnites?

Mary: Although the Samnites conquered the populations of Pompeii and Herculaneum and ruled for only about a century, did they introduce any architectural characteristics to constructions in either city?

Bard:

No, there is no concrete evidence that the Samnites introduced any distinctive architectural characteristics to either Pompeii or Herculaneum during their relatively short rule. While the Samnites undoubtedly influenced the cultural landscape of these cities, their impact on architecture remains unclear.

Architectural Continuity in Pompeii and Herculaneum

Despite the Samnite conquest, both Pompeii and Herculaneum retained much of their architectural character, which had been shaped by earlier Etruscan and Greek influences. The prevailing architectural styles during the Samnite period continued to reflect these earlier influences, with no clear signs of a significant Samnite architectural imprint.

Limited Archaeological Evidence

Archaeological excavations in Pompeii and Herculaneum have not yielded any definitive architectural features that can be unequivocally attributed to the Samnites. While some minor stylistic variations have been observed, these could be attributed to factors other than Samnite influence, such as local preferences or evolving architectural trends.

Cultural Assimilation over Architectural Innovation

It is more likely that the Samnites integrated into the existing architectural traditions of Pompeii and Herculaneum rather than introducing entirely new ones. Their relatively brief rule and focus on cultural assimilation may not have provided the impetus for significant architectural transformations.

So, while the Samnites undoubtedly played a role in the cultural development of Pompeii and Herculaneum, their direct impact on architecture remains elusive. The existing architectural evidence suggests that the cities retained their pre-Samnite architectural character, with no clear signs of a distinctive Samnite architectural style.

Images: pompeiiinpictures.com and herculaneum.uk provided these images of the two houses discussed above:

House of the Mosaic atrium IV,2 Herculaneum, 2021 Looking east from entrance doorway courtesy of Robert Hanson

House of the Mosaic atrium IV,2 Herculaneum, Looking east across covered portico with the doorway to large triclinium, on left with doorway to oecus 14 ahead courtesy of Nicolas Monteix

House of the Surgeon Pompeii VI 1,10 Pompeii Room 4, detail from mosaic floor in wing on north side of atrium courtesy of pompeiiinpictures.com

House of the Surgeon Pompeii VI 1,10 Pompeii Room 4, looking north towards detail of mosaic floor in wing on north side of atrium courtesy of the late Tatiana Warsher collection

House of the Surgeon Pompeii VI 1,10 Pompeii c1930 Looking west across threshold of north wing courtesy of M Blake

House of the Mosaic atrium IV,2 Herculaneum, Looking north-east across peristyle garden 1976 courtesy of Dr George Fay

House of the Mosaic atrium IV,2 Herculaneum, Undated postcard entitled “ Garden of the house of the mosaic atrium

House of the Mosaic atrium IV,2 Herculaneum, Looking towards windowed portico at north end of garden courtesy of Klaus Heese

House of the Surgeon Pompeii VI 1,10 Pompeii 1804. Room 11, south wall of kitchen, detail from drawing by Piranesi of altar and lararium paintings

House of the Surgeon Pompeii VI 1,10 Pompeii Pre-1804. Room 11, drawing by Piranesi, described as Plan and elevation of the kitchen in the House of the Surgeon