Roman Times: Mithraism and Roman military practices

Mithraic Tauroctony sculpture from one of the
fifteen Mithraeums in Ostia Antica, Italy that I
photographed in 2009.

While reading Colin J Campbell's article on Mithraism (https://www.thecollector.com/mithraism-secretive-cult.../) , I became curious about its effects on traditional Roman military practices like augury before a battle so I asked Bard about this:

Bard:

"Roman commanders continued to perform auguries after the spread of Mithraism. Augury was a deeply ingrained practice in Roman culture, and it was seen as an essential tool for military success. Even though Mithraism was a popular religion among soldiers, it did not supplant the traditional Roman religion, which included augury.

"There are several reasons why Roman commanders continued to perform auguries after the spread of Mithraism. First, auguries were seen as a way to gain divine favor and ensure victory in battle. Roman commanders believed that the gods could communicate their will through the omens observed during auguries, and they were eager to follow these divine directives.

"Second, auguries provided a sense of legitimacy and authority to Roman commanders. The ability to interpret omens and make decisions based on divine guidance was seen as a mark of a true leader. Commanders who were skilled in augury were able to inspire confidence in their troops and gain the respect of their peers.

"Third, auguries were a way to manage risk and uncertainty in warfare. The Roman military was a highly organized and disciplined force, but it was also vulnerable to the unpredictable nature of battle. Auguries provided a way to assess the risks and potential outcomes of different courses of action, and they helped commanders to make informed decisions in the face of uncertainty.

"Of course, there were also some critics of augury. Some believed that the practice was superstitious and unscientific. Others argued that it was a waste of time and resources. However, despite these criticisms, augury continued to be a popular practice among Roman commanders throughout the empire's history.

"Here are some examples of Roman commanders who continued to perform auguries after the spread of Mithraism:

"Julius Caesar: Caesar was a famous practitioner of augury, and he consulted the omens before every major battle.

"Pompey the Great: Pompey was another famous commander who was known for his reliance on augury.

"Augustus: Augustus was the first Roman emperor, and he was a strong supporter of traditional Roman religion. He continued to perform auguries throughout his reign.

"Trajan: Trajan was one of the most successful Roman emperors, and he was known for his piety. He continued to perform auguries throughout his reign.

"Hadrian: Hadrian was another successful Roman emperor, and he was a strong supporter of traditional Roman religion. He continued to perform auguries throughout his reign.

"In conclusion, Roman commanders continued to perform auguries after the spread of Mithraism because they believed that it was an essential tool for military success. Augury was seen as a way to gain divine favor, ensure victory in battle, manage risk and uncertainty in warfare, and provide legitimacy and authority to commanders. Despite some criticism, augury remained a popular practice among Roman commanders throughout the empire's history."

Before promoting Christianity, Constantine I publicly acknowledged Sol Invictus through rituals, art, and the minting of coins. So I asked Bard to compare and contrast the worship of Sol Invictus with Mithraism:

Bard:

"Mithraism and the worship of Sol Invictus were both mystery religions that were popular in the Roman Empire. However, there were some key differences between the two.

Mithraism

Originated in Iran in the 1st century BCE

Spread to the Roman Empire in the 1st century CE

Was a monotheistic religion that worshipped Mithras, the god of light and truth

Initiates were required to undergo a series of initiations, which included rituals, sacrifices, and feasting

Was a male-only religion

Was most popular among soldiers and merchants

Sol Invictus

Originated in Rome in the 3rd century CE

Was a syncretic religion that combined elements of the worship of the sun god Helios with other religions, such as Mithraism

Was a state-sponsored religion under Emperor Aurelian

Was open to both men and women

Was most popular among the general population

Comparison of Mithraism and Sol Invictus

Feature Mithraism Sol Invictus

Origin Iran Rome

Deity Mithras Sol Invictus

Monotheistic or syncretic?

Monotheistic Syncretic

Initiation Yes No

Gender exclusivity?

Male-only Open to both men and women

Official status?

Not state-sponsored State-sponsored

Popularity?

Mithraism: Most popular among soldiers and merchants

Worship of Sol Invictus: Most popular among the general population

Similarities between Mithraism and Sol Invictus

Both were mystery religions

Both were popular in the Roman Empire

Both were syncretic religions

Both were concerned with salvation

Differences between Mithraism and Sol Invictus

Mithraism was monotheistic, while Sol Invictus was syncretic

Mithraism had initiations, while Sol Invictus did not

Mithraism was male-only, while Sol Invictus was open to both men and women

Mithraism was not state-sponsored, while Sol Invictus was

Conclusion

Mithraism and the worship of Sol Invictus were both important religions in the Roman Empire. They shared some similarities, but they also had some key differences. Mithraism was a more exclusive and secretive religion, while Sol Invictus was a more open and inclusive religion. Mithraism was also more concerned with individual salvation, while Sol Invictus was more concerned with the welfare of the state.

Constantine I was ruthless in his opposition to so-called pagan activities. So, I asked Bard "Did the Roman emperor Constantine I attempt to discourage Mithraism?"

Bard:

"Yes, Roman emperor Constantine I did take steps to discourage Mithraism. While he did not explicitly ban the religion, he enacted a number of policies that made it more difficult for Mithraists to practice their faith. These included:

"Restricting the construction of new Mithraea: Mithraea were the temples where Mithraism was practiced. Constantine made it increasingly difficult to obtain permits to build new Mithraea, and he also ordered the destruction of some existing Mithraea.

"Confiscating Mithraic artifacts: Constantine confiscated a number of Mithraic artifacts, including statues, altars, and scrolls. These artifacts were often destroyed or desecrated.

"Limiting the activities of Mithraic priests: Constantine made it difficult for Mithraic priests to practice their religion. He restricted their access to holy sites and limited their ability to perform rituals.

Promoting Christianity: Constantine promoted Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire. He built churches, sponsored Christian festivals, and appointed Christian bishops to positions of power.

"These policies had a significant impact on Mithraism. The religion gradually declined in popularity, and it eventually disappeared from the Roman Empire altogether.

"It is important to note that Constantine's actions against Mithraism were not motivated by religious intolerance. He did not believe that Mithraism was a false religion. Instead, Constantine believed that Christianity was the best religion for the Roman Empire. He believed that Christianity would unite the empire and make it more prosperous.

"Constantine's actions against Mithraism were part of a broader effort to consolidate his power and establish a new social order in the Roman Empire. Christianity played a key role in this new order, and Constantine was determined to make Christianity the dominant religion in the empire."

Since Mithraism was solidly embraced by many members of the Roman military I asked Bard: "Is there any evidence of the Roman military opposing Constantine's efforts to eliminate Mithraism?"

Bard:

"There is some evidence that suggests that the Roman military may have opposed Constantine's efforts to eliminate Mithraism. This evidence includes:

"The continued popularity of Mithraism among soldiers: Mithraism remained popular among soldiers even after Constantine became emperor. This suggests that soldiers may have been reluctant to abandon their traditional religion.

"The existence of Mithraea in military camps: Mithraea were found in a number of military camps throughout the Roman Empire. This suggests that Mithraism was tolerated, and even encouraged, in some parts of the military.

"The reluctance of some soldiers to convert to Christianity: Some soldiers were reluctant to convert to Christianity, even after Constantine made it the official religion of the empire. This suggests that some soldiers may have preferred Mithraism to Christianity.

"It is important to note that this evidence is not conclusive. It is possible that the Roman military did not oppose Constantine's efforts to eliminate Mithraism. However, the evidence does suggest that some soldiers may have been reluctant to abandon Mithraism, and that Mithraism may have continued to be practiced in some parts of the military.

"Overall, the evidence suggests that the relationship between the Roman military and Mithraism was complex. While Mithraism was popular among soldiers, it is unclear whether the military as a whole opposed Constantine's efforts to eliminate the religion."

Curious about any substantiating archaeological evidence, I asked Bard "Which Mithraic temple sites are dated to after the accession of Constantine I?"

Bard

"Here are some examples of Mithraic temple sites that are dated to after the accession of Constantine I:

• Caracalla Mithraeum (Rome, Italy): This Mithraeum was built in the early 4th century CE, during Constantine's reign. It is one of the largest and most well-preserved Mithraea in Rome.

• Mühlgraben Mithraeum (Vienna, Austria): This Mithraeum was built in the late 4th century CE, just before the official ban on Mithraism in 391 CE. It is one of the few Mithraea in Austria that is still intact.

• Caesarea Maritima Mithraeum (Israel): This Mithraeum was built in the 3rd century CE, but it was not abandoned until the 5th century CE. This suggests that Mithraism continued to be practiced in some parts of the Roman Empire even after Constantine became emperor.

• Ostia Antica Mithraeum (Italy): This Mithraeum was built in the 2nd century CE, but it was not abandoned until the 4th century CE. This suggests that Mithraism continued to be practiced in Ostia Antica even after Constantine became emperor.

• Segontium Mithraeum (Caernarfon, Wales): This Mithraeum was built in the 2nd century CE, but it was not abandoned until the 4th century CE. This suggests that Mithraism continued to be practiced in Segontium even after Constantine became emperor.

"It is important to note that this is not an exhaustive list. There are many other Mithraic temple sites that are dated to after the accession of Constantine I. These sites are located all over the Roman Empire, and they provide evidence that Mithraism continued to be practiced in some parts of the empire even after Constantine made Christianity the official religion."

Images: I was surprised when I read Colin's article that there were fifteen Mithraeums discovered in Ostia (so far). I must not have stumbled across any when I visited Ostia in 2009. I did photograph a beautiful sculpture of the tauroctony, though, that I found in the little museum there at that time.

I also found one down at the Santa Barbara Museum of Art in California that I photographed there.