Distinctions between Thetis and generic nereids in 4th century BCE Greek art

by Mary Harrsch © 2025

While I was at the British Museum in 2016, I also photographed this beautiful bronze handle that is said to depict a nereid mounted on a hippocamp carrying Achilles' cuirass across the sea. Since I have seen a number of Roman frescoes depicting Hephaestus showing Achilles' armor to Thetis, his nereid mother, I wondered why the museum did not identify this piece as depicting Thetis.

Repousee relief of a nereid mounted on a hippocamp carrying Achilles' cuirass across the see dated to about 350 BCE. Photographed at the British Museum by Mary Harrsch.

ChatGPT said: "The female figure on the bronze handle is identified as a nereid rather than Thetis because nereids, as a collective group of sea nymphs, were often depicted as attendants in mythological scenes related to Achilles’ armor. While Thetis was a nereid herself, classical art frequently represented her alongside or as part of a group of nereids when conveying the transportation of Achilles' divine armor.

Key reasons for the identification as a general nereid rather than Thetis include:

Artistic Tradition: In Greek and later Roman art, nereids were commonly shown carrying Achilles' armor across the sea, either riding hippocamps (mythical sea horses) or dolphins. While Thetis was responsible for securing the armor from Hephaestus, the delivery was often depicted as a group effort by the nereids.

Lack of Specific Attributes: If the figure were explicitly meant to represent Thetis, she might bear attributes distinguishing her from ordinary nereids, such as a more regal posture, a crown, or a more central placement in the composition. The absence of these features suggests that the artist intended a more generic nereid representation.

Function of the Object: The relief decorates a utilitarian object, likely a vessel or a piece of furniture, where mythological scenes were often generalized rather than strictly adhering to literary specificity. This suggests an emphasis on visual themes rather than precise narrative accuracy.

Common Iconography: Thetis is sometimes shown more solemnly in depictions of Achilles' fate, whereas nereids are often portrayed dynamically, as seen in this piece, energetically transporting the divine armor.

The identification, therefore, likely stems from established artistic conventions that favored nereids as the bearers of Achilles’ armor, unless a work explicitly emphasized Thetis' central role."

I pointed out The piece is dated to 350 BCE. then asked, "Is this a fairly common decoration during this period?"

"Yes, this type of decoration was fairly common in the 4th century BCE. During this period, bronze appliqués and handles with mythological relief scenes were widely used on vessels, furniture, and other decorative objects.

Context of the Decoration:

Greek Decorative Bronze Work: The late Classical period (ca. 400–323 BCE) saw an increased production of elaborately decorated bronze vessels and furniture fittings, often featuring repoussé reliefs with mythological themes. These items were produced in workshops across Greece and Magna Graecia (southern Italy), sometimes for export.

Nereids and Maritime Themes: Scenes featuring nereids riding hippocamps, dolphins, or sea creatures were a popular motif in Greek art, especially in contexts related to funerary and sympotic (banquet) vessels. The connection between nereids and Achilles’ divine armor also made this a favored mythological theme.

Function and Style: Bronze handles and appliqués like this one were used to adorn high-status objects, such as kraters (large mixing vessels for wine), hydriai (water jars), or chests. The relief work demonstrates the skilled metalworking techniques of the period, including repoussé (hammered relief) and engraving.

Comparison to Other Artifacts: Similar nereid scenes appear on red-figure pottery, funerary reliefs, and even painted tomb decorations, especially in South Italian and Macedonian contexts. The motif was also popular in Hellenistic art and continued into Roman times, appearing on sarcophagi and silverware.

Conclusion: This type of decoration was quite common in the late Classical period. It reflects both the artistic trends of the time and the widespread appeal of mythological imagery, particularly scenes related to Achilles and the sea, which had connotations of heroism, divine favor, and possibly an association with the afterlife."

Since ChatGPT mentioned this theme was found on red-figure ceramics, I checked for pottery with this theme in the collections of the British Museum and found a red-figured bell krater with a similar scene depicting Thetis on a hippocamp accompanied by two other nereids, one on a dolphin and one on a Keto-like sea monster, all carrying pieces of Achilles armor.

Red-figured bell krater with scene of Thetis mounted on a hippocoamp carrying Achilles' shield accompanied by two nereids, one mounted on a dolphin and the other mounted on a Keto-like sea monster also carrying parts of Achilles' armor. Image courtesy of the British Museum.

All of the female figures were fully clothed and the figure identified as Thetis was particularly elaborately dressed. I uploaded a copy of the image of the bell krater to ChatGPT and it observed:

"That Attic red-figure bell krater you found is a valuable point of comparison for the bronze handle. Since it securely identifies Thetis as elaborately dressed while mounted on a hippocamp, it reinforces the argument that the partially nude figure on the bronze handle is more likely a generic nereid rather than Thetis.

Key Observations from the Krater:

Thetis wears a richly detailed garment while carrying Achilles’ shield, in line with more traditional portrayals of her as a dignified maternal figure.

She is accompanied by nereids, who are sometimes depicted with more fluid or revealing drapery, distinguishing them from Thetis.

The scene follows an established iconographic tradition of nereids transporting Achilles' armor, which appears frequently in 4th-century BCE Greek and South Italian art.

Implications for the Bronze Handle:

If the krater follows the Attic tradition of portraying Thetis fully draped, the bronze handle—if also Attic—would likely follow similar conventions.

The bronze handle’s partially nude figure aligns more with nereid representations from this period, particularly in Magna Graecia, where nereids were often depicted riding sea creatures.

The lack of clear attributes distinguishing Thetis (such as an elaborate garment or a more stately posture) on the handle makes a nereid identification more plausible.

Conclusion: "Given that Thetis remains fully draped in the krater’s depiction, it suggests that 4th-century BCE Attic artists maintained a conventional, dignified portrayal of her. If the bronze handle were also Attic, we would expect Thetis to be clothed in a similar manner. Since the figure is partially nude, it is more consistent with nereid iconography. This strengthens the argument that the bronze handle depicts a nereid, rather than Thetis herself, transporting Achilles’ armor."

I then asked if Thetis is ever portrayed partially nude in 4th century BCE Greek art and ChatGPT said:

"Yes, Thetis was occasionally portrayed partially nude in 4th-century BCE art, though it was not the most common representation. The increasing naturalism and sensuality in late Classical Greek art led to more dynamic and revealing portrayals of mythological figures, including nereids and, by extension, Thetis.

Evidence from 4th-Century BCE Art

South Italian Red-Figure Pottery (Magna Graecia, ca. 350–300 BCE)

Some vases from this period depict Thetis with flowing drapery that partially reveals her torso, similar to how nereids are portrayed.

A well-known example is the Apulian volute kraters, where Thetis appears among nereids bringing Achilles’ armor, sometimes with exposed shoulders or arms, suggesting movement and divine grace.

Bronze and Terracotta Reliefs

Decorative appliqués and reliefs, such as those used on furniture and vessels, sometimes depict nereids carrying Achilles’ armor in an energetic and semi-nude fashion.

Given that your bronze handle dates to ca. 350 BCE and features a nereid riding a hippocamp, it fits within this artistic trend. If Thetis were meant to be identified, she would likely be portrayed similarly to other nereids, possibly with exposed arms, shoulders, or upper torso.

Influence of Praxitelean Style

The 4th century BCE saw a shift in artistic conventions, particularly under the influence of sculptors like Praxiteles, who introduced a more sensual, naturalistic approach to depicting gods and nymphs.

While Thetis was not as commonly depicted as Aphrodite, nereids associated with her were increasingly shown with wet, clinging drapery or partially nude forms.

Conclusion: While Thetis was traditionally depicted fully draped, 4th-century BCE art, especially in Magna Graecia and decorative bronze reliefs, occasionally portrayed her in a more nereid-like, partially nude manner. This aligns with broader artistic trends emphasizing movement, fluidity, and the connection between nereids and the sea. Given these conventions, the figure on your bronze handle is more likely identified as a generic nereid rather than explicitly as Thetis."

I noticed on the red-figured bell krater Eros was present and asked if the presence of Eros pointed to the central figure being identified as Thetis. But, ChatGPT said:

Eros is not typically present in scenes depicting Thetis, making his inclusion on the bell krater an interesting artistic choice. In most representations of Thetis, especially those showing her interactions with Achilles or Hephaestus, Eros does not play a role. However, there are a few possible explanations for his presence in this specific image:

1. Association with the Sea and Nereids


Eros is sometimes depicted in marine settings, often accompanying Aphrodite or nereids.
Since nereids are linked to the sea and often associated with beauty and seduction, Eros’ presence might reinforce their connection to love, attraction, or divine favor.

2. Symbolic Meaning in Thetis’ Story

Thetis’ most famous myth involves her forced marriage to Peleus, which was orchestrated by Zeus and Poseidon due to a prophecy that her son would surpass his father. In this context, Eros represents divine influence over love and marriage, even when it is reluctant. While the krater doesn’t depict Thetis’ marriage, Eros might allude to this earlier episode in her mythology.

3. Influence of South Italian and Late Classical Aesthetics
By the 4th century BCE, especially in Magna Graecia, Eros was increasingly depicted in diverse mythological scenes, even where he had no direct literary role.

His presence may serve a more decorative or allegorical function, enhancing the graceful, elegant aesthetic of the composition rather than strictly adhering to mythological canon.

Conclusion: Eros’ presence in depictions of Thetis is unusual but not inexplicable. On the bell krater, he may be included due to:

His association with nereids and the sea,

A symbolic nod to Thetis’ past marriage,

The broader trend in 4th-century art to incorporate Eros in a wider range of scenes.

While not a standard feature in Thetis iconography, his inclusion here aligns with the evolving artistic conventions of the period."

So, I asked if Eros' presence could point to Thetis' love for her son, Achilles.

ChatGPT replied: "Yes, that’s a compelling interpretation! Eros’ presence could symbolize Thetis’ deep, protective, and arguably tragic love for Achilles rather than romantic or erotic love. In this context, Eros would not represent physical attraction but rather maternal devotion, emotional intensity, and the bond between mother and son.

Supporting Evidence for This Interpretation

Thetis’ Extreme Devotion to Achilles

Thetis is one of the most emotionally expressive mothers in Greek mythology, repeatedly intervening in Achilles’ fate.

She tries to make him immortal by dipping him in the Styx, seeks divine armor from Hephaestus, and mourns his inevitable death.

Eros as a Symbol of Different Forms of Love

While Eros is often associated with romantic love, he can also signify filial love, longing, and attachment.

In some late Classical and Hellenistic art, Eros' role broadens to represent bonds of affection, not just erotic desire.

Late Classical Artistic Trends

By the 4th century BCE, Greek art was increasingly expressive and emotionally nuanced.

Artists may have included Eros here to highlight Thetis' emotional turmoil and dedication to Achilles, emphasizing her role as a grieving mother rather than just a sea goddess delivering armor.

Conclusion: Eros' presence on the bell krater could indeed reinforce Thetis’ intense love for Achilles, rather than simply functioning as a decorative or marine motif. Given the overall pathos of Achilles’ story, this interpretation aligns well with the emotional depth often found in late Classical art."

Last, I asked "Would the bronze handle with a nereid carrying Achilles' cuirass have been used in a publicly accessible room or a more private room in a Greek residence?"

ChatGPT replied: "The bronze handle featuring a nereid carrying Achilles' cuirass would most likely have been used in a more publicly accessible room in a Greek residence rather than a private chamber. Here’s why:

1. Function and Placement of Decorative Bronze Fittings

Bronze handles like this were often attached to large chests (kibōtia), caskets, or furniture that stored valuable objects, possibly including armor, textiles, or other prized possessions.

Such elaborately decorated objects were commonly placed in reception rooms (androns) or symposion spaces, where elite men entertained guests.

2. Mythological Themes and Elite Display

Scenes involving Achilles, nereids, and divine armor were tied to themes of heroism, honor, and divine favor—ideal for public settings where a host could display their wealth and taste.

Greek aristocrats often curated their household decor to reflect cultural sophistication, using mythological imagery to demonstrate education and status.

3. Precedents in Symposium and Elite Furnishings

In the late Classical period (4th century BCE), luxury bronze fittings became popular on furniture and symposium-related objects.

Similar mythological bronze reliefs are found on symposium couches (klinai) and banquetware, reinforcing the idea that this handle belonged to something displayed in a shared, semi-public domestic space.

Could It Have Been in a Private Room?

While bedrooms and women’s quarters (gynaeceum) also contained chests with elaborate handles, heroic male themes like Achilles’ armor were less common in those spaces.

More intimate domestic decor often featured Dionysian or Aphrodisian themes rather than martial ones.

Conclusion

Given the subject matter and craftsmanship, the handle was likely part of an object placed in a publicly visible space, such as an andron or a household treasury area, where guests could admire it. It may have been used during symposia or displayed alongside other fine metalwork to enhance the prestige of the household."

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Aphrodite and Anchises: Why would this imagery be more symbolic in Epirus or Macedon than Attica or the Peloponnese?

by Mary Harrsch © 2025

This repoussé relief is thought to have come from a large box mirror featuring a scene of Anchises with his dog and Aphrodite accompanied by two erotes. The couple became the parents of Aeneas. It is said to be dated from 350-320 BCE and discovered in Paramythia in ancient Epirus.

Repoussé relief thought to have come from a large box mirror featuring a scene of Anchises with his dog and Aphrodite accompanied by two erotes. The couple became the parents of Aeneas. It is said to be dated from 350-320 BCE and discovered in Paramythia in ancient Epirus. Photographed at the British Museum by Mary Harrsch.

I am well aware of the Roman claims of ancestry from Aeneas but was surprised 4th century BCE Epirotes or Macedonians would find the relationship between Aphrodite and Anchises particularly symbolic. I asked ChatGPT if a number of 4th century scenes of the couple have been found. It replied:

"Yes, depictions of the myth of Aphrodite and Anchises have been found in Greece from the 4th century BCE, particularly in vase painting and relief work. One notable example is a red-figure krater attributed to the so-called "Mannheim Painter," which depicts Aphrodite approaching a reclining Anchises. Other examples include Campanian and Apulian vases that emphasize the romantic and divine aspects of their encounter.

"Reliefs, like the repoussé mirror relief you shared, are rarer but not unprecedented. The presence of Erotes in such compositions was common in 4th-century BCE Greek art, as the theme of love and divine union was a popular subject. The discovery in Paramythia aligns with other instances of mythological scenes appearing on luxury items, particularly in Macedonian and Epiran contexts."

Studying the relief, I was a little confused by what looked like an indication of female breasts on the Anchises figure and its hairstyle with long spiral curls. So, I asked about those attributes of a figure said to be male.

"The figure on the left, often assumed to be Anchises due to the presence of the dog and the reclining posture, does appear to have rounded features that suggest breasts...Some late Classical and early Hellenistic Greek artworks depict young male figures with soft, rounded features, especially in idyllic or erotic contexts. It’s possible that Anchises was depicted in an unusually androgynous manner."

As for Anchises' long ringlet of hair clearly visible on the relief, ChatGPT observed:

"Trojan heroes in Greek art were often depicted with long, flowing hair, sometimes in elaborate ringlets. This stylistic choice aligned with several broader artistic and cultural trends:

1. Trojan vs. Greek Iconography

Trojan heroes were often distinguished by their hair: In Attic vase painting and relief sculpture, Trojans—especially Paris and Aeneas—were frequently depicted with long, wavy, or curled hair, sometimes adorned with a Phrygian cap. This contrasted with the shorter, often more restrained hairstyles of Greek warriors like Achilles and Ajax.

The Eastern Influence: The Trojans were sometimes depicted with "Asiatic" elements, including long ringlets, elaborate robes, and even Persian-style trousers (anaxyrides) in later art. This was part of a broader Greek artistic tendency to differentiate foreign or semi-foreign peoples.

2. Aeneas and Anchises in Greek Art

Aeneas, in particular, is often shown with long, wavy hair in red-figure vase paintings, especially in scenes of his flight from Troy while carrying Anchises.

Anchises, when depicted youthful, can also have long curls: While in most cases he is represented as an older, bearded man, certain representations, particularly in luxury objects, show him with a more idealized youthful appearance, potentially influenced by depictions of eastern heroes.

Paris is another clear example: He is frequently shown with long, often elaborately styled hair, emphasizing his Trojan heritage and sometimes making him appear more effeminate compared to the rugged Greek warriors.

3. Macedonian and Epirote Art Influences

Macedonian and Epirote depictions of heroes tended to be more luxurious: The ruling elite embraced an opulent aesthetic, favoring elaborate curls and intricate detailing in hair and clothing. If the repoussé mirror you shared was made for an aristocratic patron, the choice to depict Anchises (or another hero) with long ringlets might reflect this trend rather than strict adherence to earlier, more austere Greek artistic conventions.

Conclusion:

"If the figure on the relief does have long ringlets, this would be consistent with Trojan iconography, particularly for heroes like Aeneas or Paris. However, if the figure is indeed meant to be Anchises, the long curls might be an artistic convention influenced by the luxurious aesthetic of the late Classical and early Hellenistic periods rather than strict adherence to traditional depictions. It would be worth comparing this relief to other repoussé mirror covers from the 4th century BCE to see if the hairstyle follows a broader trend."

I did notice the figure identified as Anchises also seems to be wearing trousers and boots. The female figure (Aphrodite) appears to be barefooted. So, I asked, "Could the trousers also be an indicator of a Trojan figure? Are Trojans sometimes depicted with trousers in 4th century BCE art?"

"Yes, trousers (anaxyrides) and boots are strong indicators of a Trojan or an "Asiatic" figure in Greek art, particularly in the 4th century BCE. This was part of a long-standing artistic convention that differentiated Trojans and other Eastern figures (such as Persians, Phrygians, and Amazons) from Greeks.

Trousers as an Ethnic Marker in Greek art

"Trojan and Phrygian Associations: In Greek art from at least the 5th century BCE, non-Greek figures—especially Trojans, Persians, and Phrygians—are often shown wearing trousers (anaxyrides) and soft boots. This visual cue helped Greek audiences distinguish foreign figures from Greek warriors, who were typically shown in tunics or hoplite armor with bare legs.

Paris as an Example: The Trojan prince Paris is frequently depicted in vase paintings and reliefs wearing a Phrygian cap and sometimes trousers, reinforcing his Eastern identity.

Amazons as a Parallel: Amazons, who were also associated with the eastern fringes of the Greek world, are often shown wearing patterned trousers and boots similar to those worn by Trojans in art.

4th Century BCE Representations of Trojans in Trousers

By the 4th century BCE, the artistic representation of non-Greek figures in trousers continued, particularly in luxury objects like metalwork and painted vases.

Macedonian Art and Luxury Styles: Macedonian and Epirote art embraced more elaborate and exotic depictions of heroic figures, and repoussé mirror covers often show highly detailed clothing. If the figure is wearing trousers and boots while Aphrodite is barefoot, this would reinforce their identity as a non-Greek, likely Trojan, figure.

Conclusion: The presence of trousers and boots on the rightmost figure strongly suggests that they are a Trojan or another eastern figure rather than a Greek. In a 4th-century BCE repoussé mirror relief, this visual detail would align with well-established artistic conventions distinguishing Trojans from Greeks."

So, I asked ChatGPT to evaluate the image and give its opinion of whether the figure said to be Anchises is dressed as a male or female and it replied:

"The attire of the figure next to the dog appears ambiguous, but certain elements suggest it may be male rather than female:

1. Trousers and Boots

The figure is wearing trousers and boots, which are not typical for Greek women but are commonly associated with Eastern or non-Greek (often Trojan, Persian, or Thracian) male figures in Greek art.

In Greek art from the 4th century BCE, Trojans, Phrygians, and Amazons are often depicted wearing long-sleeved tunics, tight-fitting trousers (anaxyrides), and boots, distinguishing them from bare-legged Greeks.

If this scene is meant to depict Anchises, the trousers could indicate his Trojan identity, aligning with other artistic conventions where Trojan warriors or noblemen are shown in non-Greek attire.

2. The Figure's Pose and Upper Body

The reclining position, with one arm raised, is often a banquet or symposium posture, typically used for men in Greek art. While some reclining female figures do exist, they are usually Aphrodite or other goddesses depicted in a sensual context, rather than clothed in long sleeves and trousers.

The upper body does seem to show some chest definition that might resemble breasts, but this could also be an effect of drapery or an idealized youthful male torso. Some late Classical and early Hellenistic depictions of young men show softer, less muscular chests.

The gesture (hand raised to the head) could indicate a relaxed or introspective pose, common in scenes of mortal men interacting with deities.

3. Comparison to Other Trojan Figures

In 4th-century BCE Greek art, Trojan men—especially Paris and other noble Trojans—are sometimes depicted wearing long-sleeved garments and trousers, differentiating them from Greek warriors, who are typically in short tunics or armor.

In Macedonian and Epirote art, Persian or Trojan influences are sometimes incorporated to emphasize connections to legendary eastern ancestry.

Given that Anchises is a Trojan prince, his portrayal in Eastern-style dress would be consistent with Greek artistic conventions for non-Greek male figures.

4. The Dog as a Clue

While Artemis is commonly depicted with dogs, noble men—especially heroes, hunters, and kings—are also sometimes shown reclining with a loyal dog at their side.

In scenes of Anchises, it would not be unusual for him to have a dog as a symbol of status or companionship.

"Conclusion: The trousers, boots, and reclining pose strongly suggest male attire, likely Trojan or Eastern-style clothing rather than a Greek female garment. If this scene does represent Anchises and Aphrodite, the depiction aligns with Greek artistic traditions that distinguish Trojan figures from Greeks through their clothing. Despite the softness of the figure’s chest, the overall iconography points to this being a male figure, probably Anchises, rather than a female one."

Just out of curiosity, since I have seen Artemis depicted with hunting dogs (outside of the Actaeon myth), I asked about the possibility the figure with the dog is Artemis and the symbolism of such a scene with Athena and Artemis together. ChatGPT responded,

1. Artemis with hunting dogs

"In Greek art, particularly on vases and reliefs, Artemis is sometimes depicted accompanied by hunting dogs, especially in scenes emphasizing her role as a huntress.

The François Vase (circa 570 BCE) shows Artemis leading a hunting dog among other mythological figures.

Several 4th-century BCE Apulian red-figure vases depict Artemis with dogs, often in dynamic hunting poses.

2. Artemis as Mistress of Animals (Potnia Theron)

In earlier Archaic and Orientalizing art, Artemis appears as a "Potnia Theron" (Mistress of Animals), holding or flanking animals, sometimes including dogs alongside lions, deer, or panthers.

While deer are more common in this context, some 6th-century BCE bronzes from Laconia depict Artemis with canines.

3. Artemis with Dogs in Literature

In Callimachus’ Hymn to Artemis (3rd century BCE), Artemis is described as having a pack of hunting dogs given to her by Pan.

Pausanias (2nd century CE) mentions statues of Artemis with dogs in sanctuaries.

4. Artemis and the Molossian Hounds (Epirote Connection?)

Epirus, where your repoussé relief was found, was famous for its Molossian hunting dogs, a breed associated with royalty and warfare.

If this relief is from Epirus or Macedonia, the inclusion of a dog could reflect a regional emphasis on Artemis as a patron of hunting dogs, linking her to local aristocratic hunting traditions.

"While the Actaeon myth is the most famous instance of Artemis with dogs, she is also shown with hunting dogs in vase paintings, bronzes, and literature—especially in her role as a huntress. Given the Epirote origin of your artifact, the dog could reflect a local hunting or Molossian dog tradition. If the reclining figure is indeed Anchises, then the presence of a dog might be symbolic rather than mythologically prescriptive.

"A scene featuring both Aphrodite and Artemis would carry strong symbolic contrasts, as these goddesses represent opposing but complementary forces in Greek mythology and religion. Their presence together in art could signify themes of duality, conflict, reconciliation, or balance between love and chastity, civilization and the wild, or beauty and strength. Here are some possible interpretations:

1. The Opposition of Love and Chastity

Aphrodite represents erotic love, desire, and fertility, while Artemis embodies chastity, virginity, and independence.

In mythology, these two deities often stand in contrast, as seen in Hippolytus' tragedy (Euripides), where his devotion to Artemis and rejection of Aphrodite leads to his downfall.

A visual depiction of Aphrodite and Artemis together could symbolize the tension between passion and purity, or the coexistence of love and restraint.

2. Nature and Civilization

Artemis is a goddess of the wilderness, the hunt, and untamed nature, whereas Aphrodite is more associated with human relationships, marriage, and seduction.

Their juxtaposition might highlight the duality of nature—the untamed vs. the cultivated, or the wild beauty of Artemis vs. the refined beauty of Aphrodite.

This would be particularly relevant in a Macedonian or Epirote context, where elite hunting culture (associated with Artemis) coexisted with luxury and courtly life (linked to Aphrodite).

3. Marriage and Maidenhood

Artemis is closely associated with young girls and their transition to adulthood, as seen in her role at Brauron, where Athenian girls performed rites before marriage.

Aphrodite, on the other hand, presides over adult love, marriage, and reproduction.

A depiction of these two goddesses together could reflect a transitionary phase, such as a woman's journey from maidenhood (Artemis) to marriage and motherhood (Aphrodite).

4. Divine Harmony or Protection of Heroes

In some myths, Artemis and Aphrodite are not simply opposed but coexist in divine harmony.

If your repoussé relief depicts Aeneas or Anchises, Aphrodite would be there as his divine mother, while Artemis might symbolize protection or a connection to his Trojan heritage.

The presence of both goddesses could imply divine guidance over the hero’s fate, especially if the scene had political or dynastic significance in Macedonian or Epirote culture.

5. Local Cult Connections in Epirus or Macedon

In Macedonian and Epirote religion, both Aphrodite and Artemis were highly revered.

Artemis was worshipped in her huntress and protector roles, tied to aristocratic hunting traditions.

Aphrodite, especially in Macedonia, was sometimes seen as a warrior goddess (Aphrodite Areia), linking her to conquest and rulership.

If this relief came from a royal or noble context, it could reflect the merging of divine influences, reinforcing the legitimacy of a ruler or noble family who saw themselves under the patronage of both goddesses.

Conclusion: If this scene truly shows Aphrodite and Artemis together, it could symbolize:

The contrast between love and chastity, passion and restraint

The balance of nature and civilization, or the wild and the refined

A transitionary phase in a woman’s life (maiden to bride)

Divine protection over a heroic figure like Anchises or Aeneas

A local religious or political statement in an Epirote or Macedonian context

"This unusual pairing raises fascinating questions about regional artistic traditions and how mythological figures were interpreted differently outside of Attic-centered narratives."

Thinking about this artifact as a mirror relief, I thought the image interpreted as Athena and Artemis in roles depicting transition from maiden to womanhood may have more meaning to a female than the Athena/Anchises image would but maybe I'm looking at it with too much of a 21st century perspective! I noticed the curator at The British Museum museum did comment that the relief is so large, it may have come from a chest or piece of furniture, though, instead of a mirror.

Lastly, since this was not a Roman-period artifact, I asked, "Why would the relationship of Aphrodite and Anchises be important in Epirus or Macedon compared to Attica or the Peloponnese?"

ChatGPT replied: "The relationship between Aphrodite and Anchises would have held special significance in Epirus and Macedon for several reasons, particularly in connection with royal ideology and the legitimization of rulership.

1. Ancestral Claims and Royal Propaganda

The Trojan Connection: The Molossian royal house of Epirus, to which Alexander the Great’s mother Olympias belonged, claimed descent from Neoptolemus, son of Achilles. Since Aeneas, the son of Aphrodite and Anchises, was a prominent Trojan hero who escaped to found a new lineage, myths involving his ancestry could have been politically relevant. The ruling elite of Epirus and Macedon often sought to link themselves to heroic or divine figures to justify their rule.

Aeneas as a Model: In the Hellenistic period, rulers across the Greek world and beyond used Trojan ancestry as a means of legitimizing their authority, much as the Romans would later do. If there was already an awareness of Aeneas’ significance in the region by the late 4th century BCE, a depiction of his parents could serve to reinforce this connection.

2. Aphrodite’s Role in Kingship and Fertility

Aphrodite as a Divine Benefactor: In Macedonian and Epirote royal ideology, Aphrodite was associated with power, fertility, and divine favor. Her union with Anchises, a mortal, could be seen as a parallel to how gods supposedly blessed certain ruling families with semi-divine ancestry.

Aphrodite and Olympias: Olympias, the mother of Alexander the Great, was closely linked to divine imagery, often associating herself with Dionysus and other powerful deities. Given that Aphrodite was also tied to ideas of dynasty and legitimacy, her presence in Macedonian iconography might have reflected royal ambitions.

3. Regional Artistic Trends and the Macedonian Love for Opulence

Luxury Objects and Mythology:

The 4th century BCE saw a rise in elaborate repoussé mirror reliefs and luxury items in Macedonian and Epirote aristocratic culture. Mythological themes celebrating love, divine favor, and heroic ancestry were common. A scene featuring Aphrodite and Anchises, with Erotes symbolizing their union and fertility, would align well with the aesthetic and ideological concerns of elite patrons in the region.

Contrast with Attica and the Peloponnese: While Athens and the Peloponnesian city-states had strong civic identities rooted in their own local myths (e.g., Theseus in Athens, Heracles in Argos and Sparta), Epirus and Macedon placed greater emphasis on heroic ancestry tied to pan-Hellenic figures like Achilles, Aeneas, and Heracles.

"Conclusion: Aphrodite and Anchises' myth would have been especially relevant in Epirus and Macedon due to its implications for royal lineage, divine favor, and the region’s strong ties to Trojan ancestry myths. While Attica and the Peloponnese had their own local mythological focuses, the northern Greek regions used myth as a political tool to strengthen their claims to divine descent and legitimacy on the broader stage of Greek and Hellenistic power struggles."

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Do horse trappings from 4th century BCE Elis reflect Thracian or Scythian influence?

 by Mary Harrsch © 2025 D

This collection of horse trappings was found in a tomb in Elis, Greece. It has been dated by the British Museum from 325-300 BCE. The museum points out that the iconography appears to possibly depict Persians, an Amazon and satyrs with menacing faces intended to strike fear into the enemy. The piece depicting a couple riding in a four-horse chariot is tentatively identified as either Pelops and Hippodamia or, because of the armed nature of the woman, Athena accompanied by Diomedes. The museum noted that the pieces appeared to parallel similar grave goods found in southern Russia.

Bronze decorative fragment of horse harness from a tomb in Elis, Greece dated between 325-300 BCE. Suggested interpretations include Pelops and Hippodamia or Diomedes and Athena. Photographed at the British Museum by Mary Harrsch.

Bronze decorative fragment of horse harness from a tomb in Elis, Greece dated between 325-300 BCE. Suggested interpretation is an Amazon. Photographed at the British Museum by Mary Harrsch

A satyr on a bronze roundel from a horse harness found in a tomb in Elis, Greece dated between 325-300 BCE. Photographed at the British Museum by Mary Harrsch

A satyr on a bronze roundel from a horse harness found in a tomb in Elis, Greece dated between 325-300 BCE. Photographed at the British Museum by Mary Harrsch

A satyr on a bronze roundel from a horse harness found in a tomb in Elis, Greece dated between 325-300 BCE. Photographed at the British Museum by Mary Harrsch

I hoped to gain a little more insight into the identification of the chariot couple so I uploaded an image of that fragment to ChatGPT. Initially it leaned toward the identification as Pelops and Hippodamia but when it asked me for more context and I uploaded pictures of the Amazon warrior and roundel with fierce satyr face, it changed its mind.

"The additional artifacts you uploaded provide strong contextual clues. The presence of a relief featuring what appears to be an Amazon, along with satyr-adorned roundels, suggests a theme related to warfare, myth, and possibly heroism.

"If the Amazon identification is correct, that could further support the interpretation of the first piece as Athena and Diomedes rather than Pelops and Hippodamia. Athena was often depicted assisting heroes in battle, and Diomedes, in particular, had a close connection with her in the Trojan War. The presence of satyrs may indicate a Dionysian or theatrical aspect, but they also appear in military contexts as decorative elements.

"Given these connections, I now lean more toward the Athena and Diomedes interpretation, but I still wouldn't completely rule out the Pelops and Hippodamia theory. The combination of Greek, possibly Thracian or Scythian, and war-related imagery suggests this tomb belonged to someone of high status—perhaps a warrior or a chieftain with connections to multiple cultural traditions."

Still not satisfied, I pointed out that chariots were no longer used in battle in the 4th century BCE and ChatGPT replied:

"Correct! By the 4th century BCE, chariots had largely fallen out of use as battlefield weapons in Greece. They were primarily used for ceremonial purposes, including games, funerary rites, and elite displays of status. In earlier periods, such as the Late Bronze Age (Mycenaean era), chariots were part of warfare, but by the Classical and Hellenistic periods, cavalry had replaced them in actual combat.

"This makes the Pelops and Hippodamia interpretation stronger because their myth specifically revolves around a chariot race. The association with horse trappings and a tomb also fits well with the idea of heroic or aristocratic funerary symbolism rather than a military context. On the other hand, if this piece were meant to depict Athena and Diomedes, one might expect a battle scene rather than a chariot ride.

Given the stylistic and cultural connections, it seems plausible that the object reflects elite funerary traditions incorporating both Greek and steppe influences. The Amazons and satyrs suggest a mythological narrative rather than a purely military one. If this was meant for a warrior's tomb, the choice of an Amazon figure could reflect admiration for heroic combat rather than literal battlefield use."

I then asked, "Are you aware of other 4th century BCE depictions of Pelops and Hippodamia on grave goods?"

ChatGPT replied: "Depictions of Pelops and Hippodamia are relatively rare on 4th-century BCE grave goods, but there are some comparable funerary representations of their myth, particularly in vase paintings and relief sculpture. While I am not aware of another direct parallel in metal horse harness decorations, I can suggest some related examples:

Comparable Funerary Representations of Pelops and Hippodamia

South Italian Red-Figure Vases (Apulian and Campanian, 4th Century BCE)

Several Apulian kraters and volute-kraters depict the chariot race between Pelops and Oenomaus, often emphasizing divine intervention (e.g., Poseidon aiding Pelops or Myrtilus sabotaging Oenomaus' chariot).

These vases were frequently placed in tombs and associated with aristocratic funerary iconography, much like your harness piece.

The Darius Painter and other prominent Apulian vase painters depicted complex mythological narratives on funerary vases, and the Pelops story occasionally appears among them.

Reliefs and Funerary Stelae

Some 4th-century BCE funerary reliefs and painted chamber tombs depict chariot scenes, though often in a more generic aristocratic or heroic context rather than specifically tied to Pelops and Hippodamia.

Thessalian funerary stelae sometimes depict chariots, as the region maintained strong equestrian traditions. However, these tend to focus on local elite identities rather than mythological narratives.

Vergina Tombs (Macedonia, Late 4th Century BCE)

The painted frieze in the Great Tumulus at Vergina, associated with Philip II of Macedon, includes chariot imagery. While this doesn’t explicitly depict Pelops, it aligns with the broader trend of heroic and mythological chariot scenes in elite burials.

Why This Object is Unusual

Your harness decoration, if indeed depicting Pelops and Hippodamia, would be an unusual example of this myth in metal grave goods from this period. The influence from Southern Russia (Scythian or Thracian styles) noted by the British Museum could also indicate that this piece reflects a blending of Greek and steppe traditions, possibly through elite mercenaries or cross-cultural exchanges."

I then asked, "Even though the collection record indicates a date of 350 BCE, the gallery card lists the date between 325-300 BCE. This places its production nearer to Alexander the Great's military activities. Did Alexander employ Scythian or Thracian cavalry contingents in his forces?"

ChatGPT replied, "Yes, Alexander the Great did employ Scythian and Thracian cavalry contingents in his forces, particularly as auxiliary units. The later dating of the harness decoration (325–300 BCE) aligns well with the period when Thracian and Scythian cavalry played key roles in Hellenistic military campaigns.

Scythian and Thracian Cavalry in Alexander’s Army

Thracian Cavalry

Thracians were well-integrated into the Macedonian army as both infantry and cavalry. Alexander’s father, Philip II, had already incorporated Thracian cavalry, and Alexander continued to use them, particularly in Balkan campaigns and the early Persian campaigns (334–331 BCE).

They were known for their light cavalry tactics, using javelins and hit-and-run maneuvers rather than direct charges like the heavy Companion Cavalry.

Scythian Cavalry

Scythians were renowned for their mounted archery and were frequently employed as mercenaries by Greek and Persian rulers.

While they did not form a large, organized part of Alexander’s army, there is evidence of Scythian mercenaries in Persian service before and during Alexander’s campaigns. Some may have later entered his forces.

In 329 BCE, Alexander fought against the Scythians near the Jaxartes River, defeating a Scythian cavalry force. Afterward, some Scythians may have been absorbed into his army.

Post-Alexander (Hellenistic Period)

After Alexander’s death, his generals (the Diadochi) continued to use Thracian and Scythian cavalry in their wars. The dating of the harness (325–300 BCE) fits into this transition period, meaning it could have been made for a cavalry officer serving under Alexander or one of his successors.

How This Connects to the Harness Decoration

If this piece was indeed found with a mix of Amazon and Satyr iconography, it could reflect the hybrid cultural influences of Alexander’s diverse army. The Scythians revered Amazons in their own mythology, and the Greeks often associated Scythian warriors with Amazons.

Given that elite cavalry officers often decorated their horse gear with symbolic imagery, this harness could have belonged to a Thracian or Scythian officer who served in Hellenistic campaigns."

I didn't think Scythians ever used chariots, though, and I've never seen any Scythian art that depicted chariots so I mentioned this to ClaudeAI. It responded:

"The British Museum's note about parallels to horse trappings found in southern Russia (Scythian territories) seemed at first to support either mythological interpretation, but actually it raises an important challenge:

Scythians were renowned horseback riders and warriors, but they weren't chariot users in this period. Their art and artifacts overwhelmingly show mounted horsemen rather than chariots. They were famous for their mastery of mounted archery and cavalry tactics."

I then asked ChatGPT, "Since this piece was found in a tomb in Elis, the city in control of the Olympic games, did the Thracians participate in the Olympic games?"

ChatGPT replied, "Yes, Thracians did participate in the Olympic Games, but their involvement was somewhat limited due to their regional status and political relationships with the Greek city-states. Here’s what we know:

Thracians and the Olympic Games

Greek Perception of Thracians

The Greeks saw Thracians as "barbarians" (non-Greek speakers), but this did not automatically exclude them from the Olympic Games.

Greek colonies in Thrace (e.g., Abdera, Maroneia, and Amphipolis) were culturally integrated with the Hellenic world, and some Thracians became Hellenized over time.

Thracians in the Olympics

Thracian aristocrats and rulers who had Greek connections or had been granted citizenship in a Greek polis could compete.

There is evidence that some Thracian athletes participated, especially in equestrian events, since Thrace was well known for its horse-rearing culture.

Famous Thracians in Greek Athletics

The Odrysian Thracian kings (who ruled much of Thrace in the Classical period) adopted Greek customs, including participation in Greek festivals and possibly athletic contests.

Kotys I (r. 383–359 BCE) and Seuthes III (r. 330–300 BCE) were both known to have cultivated ties with Greece and may have sponsored athletes or horses for the games.

Thracian cavalry units in Alexander the Great’s army were among the best horsemen of the era, so it's likely that Thracians participated in Olympic equestrian events, even if not as frequently as Greeks from major city-states.

Connection to This Burial in Elis

Since Elis controlled the Olympic Games, it is possible that this tomb belonged to someone involved in equestrian events—perhaps a Thracian mercenary or cavalry officer who settled in Greece. The presence of horse-related burial goods, including harness decorations, supports this theory.

If the Amazonian and satyr motifs were part of a Thracian identity, it could suggest that the deceased was a Thracian with strong Greek ties, possibly even a competitor in Olympic equestrian events."

Then I asked, "Has there been any Thracian grave goods found depicting Pelops and Hippodamia?"

ChatGPT replied: "Depictions of Pelops and Hippodamia are relatively rare in Thracian grave goods. While the myth of Pelops and Hippodamia was significant in Greek culture, particularly in connection with the Olympic Games, it does not appear to have been a prominent motif in Thracian art or burial practices. Thracian grave goods often feature local deities, animal motifs, and scenes reflecting their own cultural narratives. The absence of Pelops and Hippodamia imagery in known Thracian burials suggests that this particular myth was not commonly adopted or represented in Thracian funerary contexts."

So, I asked, "Did Thracian funerary art of the 4th century BCE depict chariots?"

ChatGPT replied: "Yes, Thracian funerary art from the 4th century BCE does include depictions of chariots, reflecting the significance of chariots in Thracian culture and their association with elite status and the afterlife.

"Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak: Dating to the late 4th century BCE, this tomb features intricate wall paintings, including scenes of chariots. The murals depict a noble couple in a chariot, possibly representing a journey to the afterlife or a display of their high status.

"Ostrusha Tomb: Located in the "Valley of the Thracian Rulers," the Ostrusha Tomb complex, dating to the mid-4th century BCE, includes a chamber with painted scenes. While specific depictions of chariots in this tomb are not detailed in the available sources, the complex artistry and themes suggest the importance of chariots in Thracian funerary practices.

"These examples illustrate that chariots were a prominent motif in Thracian funerary art during the 4th century BCE, symbolizing power, prestige, and the journey to the afterlife."

"So in Thracian funerary art of the 4th century, chariots symbolized conveyance to the afterlife?" I asked.

"Yes, in 4th-century BCE Thracian funerary art, chariots often symbolized conveyance to the afterlife, as well as status, power, and heroic identity. This aligns with broader Indo-European traditions where chariots were linked to both warfare and divine journeys.

Symbolism of Chariots in Thracian Funerary Contexts

Journey to the Afterlife

"Chariots were commonly depicted in Thracian tombs, often carrying a noble or warrior figure. This suggests a belief in a continued existence beyond death, where the deceased was transported to the realm of the afterlife in a grand procession.

"Similar beliefs appear in Greek and Scythian traditions, where chariots were seen as vehicles for heroic or divine passage.

Elite Status and Heroic Identity

"The presence of chariots in tomb paintings and grave goods indicates that the deceased was likely a high-ranking warrior, noble, or even a ruler.

"The Tomb of Kazanlak (late 4th century BCE) depicts a chariot scene where a noble and his consort are shown in a ceremonial or afterlife journey.

"The Sveshtari Tomb (early 3rd century BCE but reflecting earlier traditions) also emphasizes chariot-related themes in its reliefs.

Funerary Rituals Involving Chariots

"In some Thracian burials, actual horse skeletons and chariot remains have been found, indicating that chariots were sometimes physically buried with the deceased to facilitate their journey to the afterlife.

"This practice is comparable to Scythian and Celtic burials, where elite warriors were interred with their horses and weapons.

Connections to Greek Mythology and Olympic Themes

"If your artifact from Elis (home of the Olympic Games) depicts a chariot race or charioteer, it could reference Pelops and Hippodamia, whose myth centers on a deadly chariot contest. Given Thracian exposure to Greek culture, it’s possible that Greek mythological themes merged with Thracian funerary symbolism."

So, although I learned a lot of really fascinating information, none of my inquiries narrowed the identification significantly. I tried one more time with my observation that the male bearded figure appeared to be wearing either a Phrygian cap or a Macedonian-style helmet. I asked ClaudeAI (I was out of processing time for ChatGPT) about that possibility and it said:

"If that's a Phrygian cap on the bearded figure, that's a strong identifier for Pelops, who was known to be from Phrygia. Combined with:

The findspot in Elis

The Olympic connection (Pelops was considered the founder of the Olympic Games)

The presence of horses (key to the chariot race myth)

The dramatic expressions fitting the life-or-death nature of the race

The right figure potentially being Hippodamia rather than bearded

The Hellenistic date when such dramatic scenes were popular

The fact that this was found in a Greek rather than Scythian context

...I'm now much more confident this depicts Pelops and Hippodamia during their famous chariot race. The Phrygian cap is really the clinching detail - it's a clear identifier for Pelops that helps disambiguate this from other possible mythological scenes."

[On the other hand,] "A Macedonian helmet would be particularly appropriate for the 325-300 BCE date, right after Alexander's campaigns. That could shift us back toward the Diomedes and Athena interpretation, since:

"The date aligns with the period of strong Macedonian influence

What I was seeing as a Phrygian cap could indeed be a Macedonian helmet on Diomedes

"The right figure, which we established isn't necessarily bearded, could be Athena

"The dramatic expressions would fit a martial/heroic scene

The horses below would be appropriate for both deities (Athena as a military goddess, Diomedes as a hero associated with horses)

"The Macedonian helmet identification also helps explain the British Museum's note about parallels with finds in southern Russia, as Macedonian military equipment and artistic styles spread extensively into those regions during this period."

AI usage note: Today, with all of the publicity surrounding Deepseek, the Chinese-developed AI tool, I gave it a try but it was incapable of analyzing an uploaded image except to extract text from it (in other words, it had character recognition but that's all). For my work with art history, this lack of ability was a major shortcoming. This may also be one of the reasons why Deepseek was able to be developed relatively quickly compared to more graphically aware tools like ChatGPT or ClaudeAI.

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