by Mary Harrsch © 2025
This bronze mirror dated to about 350 BCE depicts Nike sacrificing a bull. I was struck by the similarity of the scene to that of Mithras slaying the bull and was aware Mithraism is said to have been introduced from the east. The mirror is said to be from Megara on the Greek mainland that had a close relationship to Miletus on Asia Minor.
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| Bronze mirror dated to between 375-350 BCE depicts Nike sacrificing a bull. The mirror is said to be from Megara, Greece. Photographed at The British Museum by Mary Harrsch. |
According to Pausanias, the Megarians said that their town owed its origin to Car, the son of Phoroneus, who built the citadel called 'Caria' there. The region of Asia Minor later known in the Iron Age as Caria was said to have been settled by Greek immigrants. Colonists from Megara are known to have founded Chalcedon in 685 BCE, and Byzantium in 667 BCE while Miletus established numerous colonies along the Black Sea coast (e.g., Sinope, Olbia). With their colonial interests overlapping, some scholars have suggested, Megara and Miletus built up a "colonisation alliance" in the 7th-6th century BCE and acted in concordance with each other. This alliance would have precipitated extensive cultural exchange.
In 545 BCE, however, Caria including Miletus was incorporated into the Persian Achaemenid Empire as a satrapy (province). The Persian conquest of Ionia in the mid-6th century BCE disrupted traditional Greek alliances and relationships.
Caria participated in the Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC) against the Persian rule, but when it failed, Caria submitted to Persian rule again and fought for Xerxes at the battle of Salamis, just across the channel from their former colonial ally, Megara.
After Xerxes defeat in 479 BCE, the cities of Caria briefly became members of the Athenian-led Delian League, but then returned to Achaemenid rule for about one century, from around 428 BCE until the conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great. By the 4th century BCE, Megara’s activities had become largely regional, though, involving interactions with Athens and other nearby poleis rather than distant cities like Miletus.
ChatGPT pointed out, "Despite a decline in direct political or economic relationships, shared cultural and artistic traditions may have persisted. For example, the bronze mirror you mentioned, featuring Nike sacrificing a bull, suggests a shared iconographic repertoire that could reflect earlier connections between the two cities or broader Greek cultural influences."
So, to explore earlier exposure to religious traditions and art surrounding the worship of Mithra, I asked about its earliest development in Persia and India.
ChatGPT explained, "The god Mithra has deep roots in ancient Indo-Iranian culture, with his worship dating back to at least the 2nd millennium BCE.
In Persia:
Mithra (or Mithras in later Greco-Roman tradition) was a prominent deity in Zoroastrianism, though his role evolved over time. In early pre-Zoroastrian Iranian religion, Mithra was associated with covenants, justice, light, and the sun. He was a key figure in the Avesta (the sacred Zoroastrian texts), particularly in the Yashts, where he is described as a protector of truth and a god of war who guarantees oaths. Mithra's worship as a major god predates the Zoroastrian reforms of Zarathustra (Zoroaster), which began around the 2nd millennium BCE.
After Zarathustra's reforms, Mithra's role diminished somewhat but remained significant, especially in later Zoroastrian traditions. During the Achaemenid Empire (6th–4th century BCE), Mithra was still venerated, as seen in inscriptions and evidence of his importance in political oaths and treaties.
In India:
In the Vedic tradition of ancient India, Mithra (referred to as Mitra) appears as a deity in the Rigveda (dated to around 1500–1200 BCE). In this context, Mitra is often paired with Varuna, another major deity, and is associated with friendship, contracts, and the natural order (ṛta). Mitra and Varuna are seen as complementary forces, with Mitra symbolizing harmony and light, while Varuna governs cosmic law and deeper mysteries.
Shared Origins:
Mithra/Mitra's worship in both Persia and India stems from a common Indo-Iranian religious heritage, which split into distinct traditions as the Indo-Aryans migrated into the Indian subcontinent and the Iranians settled in the Iranian plateau. This shared heritage makes Mithra one of the oldest known deities to have been venerated in both traditions, with his worship beginning at least 3,500 years ago."
I then asked ChatGPT "When was Mithraism thought to have been introduced to Roman culture?"
"Mithraism is thought to have been introduced into Roman culture around the late 1st century CE, particularly during the Flavian period. Its roots likely trace back to earlier Persian and Indian traditions involving the god Mithra, who was associated with contracts, oaths, and light. The Roman adaptation, however, developed its own distinct characteristics, with the tauroctony (bull-slaying scene) becoming its central iconographic motif.
Your observation of the similarity between the Nike sacrificing a bull and the Mithraic tauroctony is intriguing, as it highlights the potential interplay of cultural and religious symbols across time and geography. While the bull-sacrifice theme might have originated independently in Greek and Roman traditions, it could also reflect shared or transmitted ideas about fertility, life, and renewal through sacrificial acts. The connection to Megara and its ties to Miletus adds further depth, suggesting a potential influence of eastern motifs well before Mithraism fully emerged in the Roman world."
So, I then asked, "Have similar scenes of a Nike-like figure sacrificing a bull been found in Asia Minor or Persia preceding the 4th century BCE?"
ChatGPT replied, "Scenes specifically depicting a Nike-like figure sacrificing a bull are not well-documented in Asia Minor or Persia prior to the 4th century BCE. However, there are thematic parallels and iconographic traditions involving bull sacrifice and divine or semi-divine figures in these regions that predate the Greek depictions.
In Asia Minor: Phrygian and Anatolian Religious Practices: Bulls were central to religious iconography in Asia Minor, particularly in Phrygian cults (connected to the goddess Cybele) and in later Anatolian practices. While no explicit Nike-like figures appear, bull sacrifices were a common symbol of fertility, renewal, and divine appeasement.
Winged Figures: Winged deities or genii are present in Anatolian art, such as the winged gods and attendants in Hittite reliefs (circa 13th–12th century BCE). These figures sometimes interact with animals in sacrificial or protective contexts, but there is no direct precedent for a figure resembling Nike actively sacrificing a bull.
In Persia: Zoroastrian Influence: In ancient Persia, religious practices surrounding the bull had significant symbolic meaning. In Zoroastrian mythology, the primordial bull (Gavaevodata) is central to creation myths, where its sacrifice leads to the creation of life forms. However, these ideas were expressed symbolically rather than through visual depictions of gods or figures performing the act.
Royal Imagery: Achaemenid art (6th–4th century BCE) often depicts kings or divine figures interacting with animals, particularly in hunting or protective roles. For example, reliefs at Persepolis show the king combating lions or bulls, symbolizing divine favor and power. However, there is no known example of a figure resembling Nike in sacrificial scenes.
Connections and Influence: The concept of bull sacrifice itself predates Nike’s appearance in such scenes and has deep, cross-cultural roots in ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern societies.
The motif of a winged figure, often associated with divinity or victory, appears in both Greek and Near Eastern art (e.g., Assyrian genii, Hittite reliefs). This shared iconography could have influenced the later Greek depiction of Nike.
The active, ritualized slaying of a bull by a divine or semi-divine figure seems to have been formalized primarily in Greek art, as seen in works like your bronze mirror, and may not have a direct Persian or earlier Anatolian prototype.
The Achaemenid Empire practiced a policy of tolerance toward local religions. Rather than imposing Zoroastrianism, Persian rulers allowed subject peoples, including the Greeks of Ionia, to continue their own religious practices.
Conclusion: While bull sacrifice and winged figures appear in Asia Minor and Persia before the 4th century BCE, there is no direct evidence of a Nike-like figure performing such an act. The Greek development of this specific motif likely synthesized broader sacrificial themes with their unique artistic and religious conventions."
I pointed out The British Museum says this scene also decorated the Temple of Athena Nike at Athens but ChatGPT clarified this reference:
"The Temple of Athena Nike in Athens was constructed around 427–424 BCE during the Periclean building program on the Acropolis. It is a small Ionic temple dedicated to Athena as the goddess of victory (Nike), commemorating Athens' military successes.
Nike Sacrificing a Bull on the Temple: Relief scenes of Nike adorning the parapet of the temple include depictions of her performing sacrificial and celebratory acts, including leading a bull to sacrifice. These reliefs are contemporaneous with the temple’s construction in the late 5th century BCE and align with the high classical period of Greek art. However, none of the surviving examples from the temple explicitly show Nike in the act of slaying a bull. Instead, she is often shown leading the animal or in poses emphasizing grace and movement.
Earlier Examples of Nike Sacrificing a Bull: The depiction of Nike sacrificing a bull, as seen in your bronze mirror from Megara, reflects a motif that was not prominent in earlier Greek art. It likely evolved during the late Classical period (c. 400–350 BCE), paralleling developments in Greek religious iconography and a focus on victory rituals. This particular pose of Nike actively slaying a bull seems to become more visible in art slightly after the Parthenon-era works, suggesting a growing emphasis on dynamic, narrative-driven imagery.
Precedents for Bull Sacrifice in Greek Art: While earlier Greek art includes scenes of animal sacrifice (thysia), the focus on Nike herself as the sacrificer emerges in the later Classical period. The bull-sacrifice motif more broadly, however, has ancient roots in both Minoan-Mycenaean and early Greek art, where bulls are linked to power, fertility, and divine offerings.
Summary:
The motif of Nike sacrificing a bull likely solidified as a specific iconographic theme during the mid-4th century BCE, with examples such as your bronze mirror representing one of its more dynamic and detailed renditions."
Megara's role as an active trading center diminished significantly after the Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BCE. But, despite its diminished economic role, Megara remained culturally significant due to its historical importance as the mother city of prominent colonies like Byzantium (later Constantinople) and Chalcedon. Roman influence in Megara is evident in architectural remains, including baths and villas. So its artwork still may have inspired those traveling through the city.
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