by Mary Harrsch © 2025 Are Faliscan or Etruscan mercenaries depicted on the Nereid monument?
Whenever I visit the British Museum, I always enjoy photographing the Nereid Monument. The Nereid Monument is a sculptured tomb from Xanthos in Lycia thought to have been built in the early fourth century BCE (circa 390 BCE) as a tomb for Arbinas, the Xanthian dynast who ruled western Lycia under the Achaemenid Empire. Despite its Greek appearance, it was built in accordance with main Zoroastrian criteria "by being composed of thick stone, raised on plinths off the ground, and having single windowless chambers." It is also thought to have been the main inspiration for the famous Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.
As I studied a block of sculpture from the podium, I did a double take when I noticed the helmet on the ground beneath the feet of the hoplite on the far left. To me it looks to be a very distinctive Faliscan metal-crested commander's helmet. I have photographed one on display at the Penn Museum in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
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| Part of the first frieze, which is the lower, larger frieze at top of the podium of the Nereid monument. Photographed at the British Museum by Mary Harrsch |
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| An Etruscan (Faliscan) bronze helmet from Etruria, Narce Tomb 43, dated 725-700 BCE now in the collections of the Penn Museum in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. |
The Falisci were an Italic tribe who lived in what is now northern Lazio, on the Etruscan side of the Tiber River. They spoke an Italic language, Faliscan, closely related to Latin. Originally a sovereign state, politically and socially they supported the Etruscans, joining the Etruscan League.
The Falisci, often allied with the Etruscans, resisted Rome for a long time. They were allied with Veii when it was defeated by the Romans in 396 BCE. In the aftermath, Falerii (the Falisci's capital city, was occupied by the victorious Romans. When, in 358 BCE, Tarquinia rebelled, the Falisci again took arms against Rome, but were again crushed c. 351 BCE. This time when an alliance was signed between the contenders, a Roman garrison was settled in Falerii.
The Falisci took advantage of the First Punic War to declare their independence, but their revolt ended in 241 BCE with the death of 15,000 Falisci and the destruction of Falerii; the survivors were moved to a new city, Falerii Novi.
I asked ChatGPT if the helmet depicted is a Faliscan helmet, what would that imply?
ChatGPT replied:
"Possible Explanations:
Mercenary Service – The Etruscans and Faliscans were known to serve as mercenaries. If this battle scene represents a conflict between Lycians and Persians, there could have been Italic warriors fighting on either side.
Spoils of War – The helmet might indicate a fallen Etruscan or Faliscan warrior who had been in the service of one of the factions.
Artistic Convention – The sculptor might have used an exotic helmet type to distinguish a foreign or elite warrior.
Trade and Influence – Etruscan arms and armor were widely traded, and it's possible that a Lycian or Persian officer was using an imported helmet.
Then I asked, "How long were these distinctive helmets with triangular metal crests used by the Faliscans, Etruscans, or others?"
ChatGPT replied: "The distinctive triangular-crested helmets, like the one you photographed, were primarily used during the 7th to 5th centuries BCE by the Faliscans, Etruscans, and other Italic peoples. Their design evolved over time, but they largely disappeared from military use by the late 5th century BCE, replaced by more standardized helmets influenced by Greek and later Roman designs.
Phases of Use:
Early Development (8th–7th century BCE)
The earliest examples of bronze crested helmets appear in Etruscan and Faliscan tombs. These helmets may have been inspired by Villanovan culture (proto-Etruscan) influences. Their tall, ridged crests likely had both a functional (deflection of blows) and ceremonial purpose.
Peak Usage (7th–6th century BCE)
Found in warrior burials and votive offerings, suggesting elite or military-religious significance.
Worn by Faliscan, Etruscan, and Latin warriors, likely indicating rank or status.
Helmets of this type appear on painted Etruscan vases and friezes (like the one in your image).
Decline and Replacement (5th century BCE)
By the 5th century BCE, Greek-style helmets (Corinthian, Chalcidian, and later Montefortino types) became dominant in Italy.
The shift toward more protective and less elaborate helmets suggests increasing military engagements with the Greeks and other Italic tribes.
Triangular-crested helmets largely vanished from battlefield use but may have persisted in ritual or ceremonial contexts for some time. Some 4th-century BCE depictions show Italic warriors with exaggerated crests, which may have been a stylistic remnant of earlier Faliscan and Etruscan helmets."
Then I asked, "What significant conflicts in Asia Minor or Persia involved Etruscan or Faliscan mercenaries prior to the 5th century BCE?"
"Prior to the 5th century BCE, Etruscan and possibly Faliscan mercenaries were involved in a few notable conflicts in Asia Minor and the eastern Mediterranean, largely as part of larger mercenary forces employed by regional powers. While the Faliscans specifically are not widely documented as mercenaries in the East, the Etruscans—as a dominant maritime power—are more frequently mentioned.
Key Conflicts Involving Etruscan Mercenaries:
1. Service Under the Lydian Kings (7th–6th century BCE)
The Lydian kingdom (centered in western Asia Minor) was one of the most powerful states before the Persian conquest.
Etruscan warriors were possibly employed as mercenaries or allies of Lydia, given Etruscan-Lydian trade ties.
King Alyattes (r. 610–560 BCE) and his successor Croesus (r. 595–546 BCE) hired Greek and other foreign mercenaries to fight against the Medes and later the Persians under Cyrus the Great.
Since Etruscans had extensive contacts in the Aegean, they may have participated, though evidence is sparse.
2. Etruscan Mercenaries in Pharaoh Psamtik’s Army (Late 7th Century BCE): Egyptian Pharaoh Psamtik I (r. 664–610 BCE) employed foreign mercenaries, including Ionian Greeks and possibly Etruscans.
Some scholars speculate that Tyrrhenoi (Greek for Etruscans) could have served as part of these forces. If Etruscans were in Egypt, they could have later moved into Persian-controlled territories as hired warriors.
3. The Persian Conquest of Ionia (546 BCE)
When Cyrus the Great conquered the Greek city-states of Ionia, many Ionian Greeks fled or became mercenaries. Some Etruscans could have been involved, either defending Greek cities or later serving Persian rulers.
4. The Battle of Alalia (540 BCE) – Conflict with Carthage & Persia
Etruscan and Greek Phocaean forces fought Carthage in a massive naval battle off Corsica. The Phocaeans, who had been fleeing Persian rule in Asia Minor, sought to establish a colony in the west.
Some Etruscans may have encountered Persians indirectly through their conflicts with the Phocaeans, who had been expelled by the Persians.
5. Service in Persian Armies (Late 6th Century BCE)
Under Darius I (r. 522–486 BCE), the Persian Empire employed large numbers of foreign mercenaries. Greek sources sometimes refer to "Tyrrhenians" (Etruscans) in Persian forces, possibly as naval specialists. Given their naval expertise, Etruscan warriors may have served in Persian campaigns, though direct evidence is limited.
Possible Faliscan Involvement?
The Faliscans, being a small but closely related group to the Etruscans, might have participated as part of larger Etruscan contingents. There is no direct evidence of Faliscan mercenaries in Asia Minor, but they likely shared in Etruscan military and maritime expeditions.
Conclusions: Etruscan mercenaries were likely involved in Lydia, Egypt, and Persian-controlled territories. The Battle of Alalia (540 BCE) was a key moment when Etruscans clashed with displaced Ionian Greeks, indirectly tying them to Persian conflicts.
Persians may have recruited Etruscan naval forces in the late 6th century BCE. Faliscans are less well-documented, but if they participated, it would have been under Etruscan leadership."
Do we know what battle is portrayed on the Podium reliefs of the Nereid Monument?
ChatGPT said:
"The battle scenes on the podium reliefs of the Nereid Monument (c. 390–380 BCE) remain uncertain in their exact historical reference, but they likely depict conflicts involving Arbinas (Erbbina), the Lycian dynast who commissioned the monument. The reliefs show dynamic scenes of Greek-style hoplites, cavalry, and Persian-influenced warriors, reflecting the complex political landscape of Lycia under Persian rule in the 4th century BCE.
Possible Battles Depicted on the Podium Reliefs
There are a few key theories about the historical events represented:
Lycian Resistance to the Persian Satraps (Early 4th Century BCE)
The images may reference a local Lycian revolt against Persian satrapal rule.
Lycia had a history of defying Persian control, and Arbinas may have fought regional Persian-backed forces to secure his own power.
Campaigns of the Persian Satrap Datames (c. 385–380 BCE)
Datames, the Persian satrap of Cilicia and Cappadocia, was active in western Anatolia. He may have clashed with Lycian forces, either subduing them or using them as allies. Some of the warriors on the reliefs wear Greek-style armor, suggesting the presence of Greek mercenaries, possibly in Persian service.
Achaemenid Persian Conflicts in Asia Minor
The reliefs might portray Lycian involvement in Persian campaigns against rebellious cities or satraps. Greek mercenaries and local Anatolian troops often served under Persian commanders.
Some speculate that Etruscan or western Anatolian mercenaries (including possible Faliscans) could be depicted in these battle scenes.
Key Visual Elements
Greek-style hoplites and cavalry fighting in pitched battle.
Persian and Anatolian-style warriors, some possibly representing Persian satrapal forces.
City sieges and skirmishes, possibly reflecting Arbinas’ military campaigns to consolidate his rule in Lycia.
Conclusions: While the exact battle(s) remain unidentified, the reliefs likely depict military actions involving Lycia, Persian satraps, and Greek mercenaries in the late 5th or early 4th century BCE. If Etruscan or Faliscan mercenaries were present in Persian armies at this time, they could have participated in similar conflicts."
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