The judgement of Solomon or Polyxena being sacrificed to the ghost of Achilles: Possibly a testament to evolving appreciation for female virtue and achievement?

 by Mary Harrsch © 2025 

I was looking through one of my online image sources and stumbled across Geremia Discanno's paintings of frescoes discovered in the Casa del Medico aka The House of the Physician or The House of the Judgement of Solomon (VIII 5,24) excavated in 1841 then again in 1892. One depicts a Nilotic scene with pygmies engaged in various activities with crocodiles and Hippopotami. The other depicts a scene of what appeared to 19th century eyes to be the Judgement of Solomon, hence one of the earlier names of the house.

House of the Judgement of Solomon (VIII 5 24) Pompeii reproduction of judgement scene by Geremia Discanno

House of the Judgement of Solomon (VIII 5 24) Pompeii original painting of judgement scene

House of the Judgement of Solomon (VIII 5 24) Pompeii Reproduction of Wall painting of Pygmies in a Nile Scene from a low wall connecting peristyle columns by Geremia Discanno

House of the Judgement of Solomon (VIII 5 24) Pompeii Wall painting of Pygmies in a Nile Scene from a low wall connecting peristyle columns courtesy of Giuseppe Ciaramella

House of the Judgement of Solomon (VIII 5 24) Pompeii Detail from a wall painting of Pygmies in a Nile Scene (1) courtesy of pompeiiinpictures.com

House of the Judgement of Solomon (VIII 5 24) Pompeii Detail from a wall painting of Pygmies in a Nile Scene (2) courtesy of pompeiiinpictures.com

House of the Judgement of Solomon (VIII 5 24) Pompeii Detail from a wall painting of Pygmies in a Nile Scene courtesy of pompeiiinpictures.com

I asked ChatGPT what other mythological myths included the sacrifice of a young individual that recent scholars think the scene may show.

According to ChatGPT, some scholars think the scene refers to the tragic myth of Polyxena, a Trojan princess who was sacrificed at the tomb of Achilles after the fall of Troy.

To investigate the possibility, it could have represented a scene from Jewish sources I asked, "Was there a significant settlement of Jews in Pompeii in the 1st century CE?"

ChatGPT replied: "There is limited but intriguing evidence suggesting that a small Jewish community may have lived in Pompeii in the 1st century CE, though no definitive synagogue or large-scale settlement has been identified. Here are some key pieces of evidence:

1. Graffiti and Inscriptions

Several inscriptions in Pompeii reference Jewish names or symbols.

A famous graffito, found near the Forum, appears to contain the Latinized name "Sodoma", possibly referencing the biblical city of Sodom, which could indicate some Jewish familiarity or presence.

Another inscription, “Shema Israel” (a central Jewish prayer), was reportedly found in Herculaneum, a nearby town also buried in the eruption of Vesuvius.

2. Menorah Depictions

A small number of menorah (seven-branched candelabrum) symbols have been found in Pompeii, suggesting Jewish identity or cultural influence.

One such symbol was discovered etched into a house wall, which might indicate a Jewish inhabitant.

3. Jewish Presence in Nearby Naples and Rome

Naples, located relatively close to Pompeii, had a known Jewish population in the early Imperial period.

Rome had a significant Jewish community, with multiple synagogues and references to Jewish life in historical texts. Given the trade connections between Rome and Pompeii, it is possible that Jews lived in Pompeii as merchants or traders.

4. Absence of a Known Synagogue

Unlike in Rome or Ostia, where synagogues have been found, no synagogue has been identified in Pompeii.

This suggests that if Jews lived there, they may have been a small, dispersed community rather than a large, organized settlement.

5. Influence of Jewish Culture

Some scholars speculate that Jewish and early Christian ideas might have been present in Pompeii through trade and interaction, though there is no direct evidence of a Christian or Jewish religious center."

Since ChatGPT mentioned a few Jewish symbols found within graffito in Pompeii I asked it to further explore their presence. ChatGPT replied:

"The Jewish-related inscriptions and symbols found in Pompeii were primarily external graffiti rather than decorations or artifacts found inside specific houses. This suggests that they were public markings rather than indicators of a dedicated Jewish household or place of worship.

Graffiti: Many inscriptions in Pompeii were casual writings left on walls by passersby, not necessarily tied to the owners of the buildings.

Menorah Symbols: These were found etched onto walls or columns but were not part of any known household decor.

Shema Inscription (Herculaneum): Found in a public area rather than inside a private home, reinforcing the idea of a dispersed Jewish presence rather than an organized community.

Since no synagogue or Jewish quarter has been identified in Pompeii, any Jewish inhabitants likely lived among the general population rather than in a concentrated settlement."

Since Roman frescoes in public spaces within a home, like the peristyle, are intended for visitors as well as residents, I doubt a Jewish-themed fresco in Pompeii would be able to serve that purpose if Pompeii had so few Jewish residents.

I searched for other depictions of the Polyxena myth in Pompeii on pompeiiinpictures.com and found only one. It is a fresco in the House of Jason (IX 5,18) thought to depict Phoenix and Polyxena in front of Achilles tomb. So the depictions of the Polyxena myth appear to be very rare in Pompeii.

House of Jason (IX 5,18) Pompeii 2005 Room f  south wall of triclinium Wall painting of Phoenix and Polyxena courtesy of pompeiiinpictures.com

I asked about depictions of Polyxena in other Roman art and ChatGPT said: "Although rare in Pompeii, the Sacrifice of Polyxena is found elsewhere in Roman art, including:

A famous Roman relief from Herculaneum, showing the sacrifice at Achilles' tomb. Several sarcophagi from the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, where Polyxena’s tragic fate was a popular theme."

As I ran out of processing time on ChatGPT, I switched to DeepSeek and asked, "Why would depictions of the myth of Polyxena become popular for sarcophagi decoration in the 2nd and 3rd centuries?"

DeepSeek replied: "The depiction of the myth of Polyxena’s sacrifice on Roman sarcophagi during the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE reflects the broader cultural and artistic trends of the time, as well as the symbolic resonance of the myth itself. The story of Polyxena, a young Trojan princess sacrificed at the tomb of Achilles, carried profound themes that resonated with Roman funerary art and the societal values of the period. Here are some key reasons why this myth became popular for sarcophagi decoration:

1. Themes of Sacrifice and Heroism

Polyxena’s story is one of noble sacrifice, a theme that aligned well with Roman ideals of virtue, duty, and heroism. Her willingness to face death with dignity (as depicted in many versions of the myth) mirrored the Roman cultural emphasis on stoicism and bravery in the face of fate.

For the deceased commemorated on the sarcophagi, this theme could symbolize their own noble qualities or their acceptance of death as a part of life’s natural order.

2. Tragedy and Mourning

The myth of Polyxena is deeply tragic, involving the death of an innocent young woman and the grief of her family, particularly her mother, Hecuba. This theme of mourning and loss resonated with the purpose of sarcophagi as funerary objects, which were designed to commemorate the dead and console the living.

The depiction of Polyxena’s sacrifice could serve as a metaphor for the untimely death of the sarcophagus’ occupant, especially if they died young or under tragic circumstances.

3. Connection to the Trojan War

The Trojan War was a central theme in Roman art and literature, as the Romans traced their ancestry back to the Trojan hero Aeneas. Scenes from the Trojan War, including Polyxena’s sacrifice, allowed Romans to connect with their mythological heritage and express their cultural identity.

The myth of Polyxena, as part of the larger Trojan narrative, provided a rich and familiar story that could be adapted to funerary contexts.

4. Symbolism of Death and Afterlife

Polyxena’s sacrifice was often depicted as a ritual act, sometimes interpreted as necessary to appease the ghost of Achilles or to ensure the safe passage of the Greek fleet. This ritualistic aspect of her death could symbolize the transition from life to death and the hope for a peaceful afterlife.

For Romans, who placed great importance on funerary rituals and the afterlife, this theme would have been particularly meaningful.

5. Emphasis on Female Virtue

Polyxena’s portrayal as a virtuous and noble young woman who faced her fate with courage resonated with Roman ideals of female virtue (pudicitia). Her story could be used to honor the virtues of the deceased, particularly women, who were often commemorated on sarcophagi.

The inclusion of Polyxena’s myth on sarcophagi may have served to celebrate the moral and spiritual qualities of the deceased, especially if they were young women or girls.

6. Artistic Trends in the 2nd and 3rd Centuries

During the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, Roman funerary art became increasingly elaborate and symbolic. Mythological scenes were popular because they allowed for rich, emotional storytelling that could convey complex ideas about life, death, and the afterlife.

The myth of Polyxena, with its dramatic and emotional content, provided artists with an opportunity to create visually striking and emotionally powerful compositions.

7. Contrast Between Innocence and Brutality

The juxtaposition of Polyxena’s innocence and the brutality of her sacrifice created a poignant contrast that underscored the fragility of life and the inevitability of death. This contrast would have been particularly effective in a funerary context, where the themes of mortality and the fleeting nature of life were central.

8. Appeal to Elite Patrons

Sarcophagi were expensive and often commissioned by elite Roman families. The myth of Polyxena, with its connections to the Trojan War and its themes of nobility and sacrifice, would have appealed to the tastes and values of these patrons. It allowed them to associate themselves with the heroic and tragic figures of mythology, elevating their own status and legacy.

Then, I asked, "Would it also be influenced by the change from cremation to mostly inhumation?"

DeepSeek replied: "Yes, the shift from cremation to inhumation (burial) as the dominant funerary practice in the Roman world during the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE likely played a significant role in the popularity of mythological scenes like the sacrifice of Polyxena on sarcophagi. This transition was not just a change in burial customs but also reflected broader cultural, religious, and artistic shifts that influenced how Romans commemorated their dead. Here’s how the shift to inhumation may have contributed to the prominence of such mythological depictions:

1. Increased Use of Sarcophagi

With the rise of inhumation, sarcophagi became the primary means of burial for many Romans, especially among the elite. Unlike cremation, which required only an urn for ashes, inhumation necessitated larger, more elaborate containers for the body. This created a new canvas for artistic expression, and mythological scenes like Polyxena’s sacrifice provided rich, emotionally charged imagery that could adorn these sarcophagi.

2. Symbolism of the Body and the Afterlife

Inhumation emphasized the preservation of the body, which may have led to a greater focus on themes of resurrection, transformation, and the afterlife. The myth of Polyxena, with its ritualistic and sacrificial elements, could be interpreted as symbolizing the soul’s journey or the hope for a peaceful transition to the afterlife.

The act of sacrifice in the myth could also be seen as a metaphor for the deceased’s own "sacrifice" of earthly life in exchange for eternal peace.

3. Artistic Opportunities for Narrative and Decoration

Sarcophagi provided a larger surface area for decoration compared to urns, allowing for more elaborate and detailed scenes. The myth of Polyxena, with its dramatic and emotional content, was well-suited to these larger compositions. Artists could depict multiple figures, intricate emotions, and symbolic elements, creating a visually compelling narrative.

The shift to inhumation thus encouraged the development of more complex and symbolic funerary art, with mythological scenes serving as a way to convey deeper meanings about life, death, and the afterlife.

4. Cultural and Religious Shifts

The transition to inhumation coincided with broader cultural and religious changes in the Roman Empire, including the growing influence of mystery religions (such as those of Isis, Mithras, and later Christianity) that emphasized salvation and the afterlife. These religions often incorporated themes of sacrifice, resurrection, and eternal life, which aligned with the symbolism of myths like Polyxena’s.

Even before the widespread adoption of Christianity, there was a growing interest in ideas of personal salvation and the soul’s journey after death, which may have made myths involving sacrifice and transformation particularly appealing.

5. Commemoration of the Deceased

Sarcophagi were not just containers for the body but also monuments to the deceased. Mythological scenes like Polyxena’s sacrifice allowed families to honor their loved ones by associating them with noble and tragic figures from mythology. This was especially meaningful for young women or girls, as Polyxena’s youth and virtue could serve as a parallel to the deceased.

The shift to inhumation may have also encouraged a more personal and emotional connection to the deceased, as the body itself was preserved and commemorated. Mythological scenes provided a way to express grief, hope, and remembrance.

6. Elite Patronage and Status Display

Sarcophagi were expensive and often commissioned by wealthy families as a way to display their social status and cultural sophistication. The use of mythological scenes, particularly those from the Trojan War, allowed patrons to align themselves with the heroic and tragic figures of the past, elevating their own legacy.

The shift to inhumation may have intensified this trend, as sarcophagi became more prominent and visible in tombs and mausoleums, serving as lasting monuments to the family’s prestige.

7. Continuity with Earlier Funerary Art

While the shift to inhumation was significant, it did not represent a complete break with earlier traditions. Mythological scenes had long been used in Roman funerary art, including on ash urns and tomb paintings. The transition to sarcophagi allowed these themes to be expanded and adapted to new formats, ensuring their continued relevance."

I then asked if these sarcophagi are thought to have contained females and DeepSeek replied:

"The sarcophagi depicting the myth of Polyxena’s sacrifice were indeed often used for female burials, particularly for young women or girls. This association is not surprising, given the themes of the myth and the ways in which Roman funerary art often linked the deceased to mythological figures who shared similar qualities or life circumstances. Here’s a closer look at the evidence and reasons behind this connection:

1. Thematic Resonance with Female Virtue

Polyxena is portrayed in the myth as a young, virtuous, and noble princess who faces her fate with courage and dignity. These qualities aligned closely with Roman ideals of female virtue (pudicitia), making her an appropriate symbolic figure for commemorating women, especially those who died young or under tragic circumstances.

The myth’s emphasis on Polyxena’s innocence and sacrifice would have resonated with families mourning the loss of a daughter, sister, or wife, allowing them to honor her memory by associating her with a noble mythological figure.

2. Evidence from Sarcophagi

While detailed records of the occupants of sarcophagi are often lacking, stylistic and thematic analyses suggest that many sarcophagi depicting the Polyxena myth were commissioned for female burials. The imagery and inscriptions on some sarcophagi further support this association.

For example, sarcophagi featuring Polyxena often include scenes of mourning women, such as Hecuba (Polyxena’s mother), which would have reinforced the connection to female grief and loss.

3. Commemoration of Young Women

The myth of Polyxena was particularly suited to commemorating young women who died prematurely. Her youth and tragic fate mirrored the untimely deaths of many Roman girls and women, making her story a poignant metaphor for their lives and deaths.

Sarcophagi depicting Polyxena’s sacrifice often emphasize her youth and beauty, further highlighting the parallel between her and the deceased.

4. Roman Funerary Practices and Gender

Roman funerary art frequently used mythological figures to reflect the virtues and qualities of the deceased. For women, this often meant emphasizing piety, modesty, and familial devotion, all of which are central to Polyxena’s story.

The use of Polyxena’s myth for female burials also reflects the broader trend of associating women with mythological heroines in Roman art, such as Persephone, Danaids, or Ariadne, who symbolized themes of innocence, sacrifice, or transition to the afterlife.

5. Exceptions and Broader Use

While the Polyxena myth was particularly popular for female burials, it was not exclusively used for women. Some sarcophagi depicting the myth may have been commissioned for male burials, especially if the deceased was associated with themes of heroism, sacrifice, or the Trojan War.

However, the majority of surviving examples and the thematic focus of the myth suggest a stronger association with female burials.

6. Cultural and Artistic Trends

The popularity of the Polyxena myth for female burials also reflects broader cultural trends in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, when mythological scenes became increasingly common on sarcophagi. These scenes allowed families to express their grief and hope for the deceased’s afterlife in a way that was both culturally meaningful and visually striking.

The emphasis on female virtue and the tragic beauty of Polyxena’s story made it a fitting choice for commemorating women, particularly in a society that valued the ideals of modesty, loyalty, and familial devotion."

I followed up with, "Did emphasis on female achievements become more acceptable to 2nd and 3rd century CE Romans?"

DeepSeek replied:

"The 2nd and 3rd centuries CE saw a gradual but notable shift in Roman attitudes toward women and their roles in society, including a greater emphasis on female achievements in both public and private spheres. While Roman society remained patriarchal, there were significant developments during this period that allowed women to gain more visibility and recognition for their contributions. This shift is reflected in art, literature, and funerary practices, including the use of mythological and historical figures to celebrate female virtues and accomplishments. Here’s an overview of how and why this change occurred:

1. Increased Visibility of Elite Women

During the Principate (early Roman Empire) and into the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, elite women, particularly those connected to the imperial family, began to play more prominent roles in public life. Empresses like Livia, Agrippina the Younger, and Julia Domna were celebrated for their political influence, patronage, and contributions to the empire.

This increased visibility of powerful women in the public sphere likely influenced broader societal attitudes, making it more acceptable to celebrate female achievements in art and literature.

2. Funerary Art and Female Commemoration

The shift from cremation to inhumation during this period led to the creation of elaborate sarcophagi, many of which celebrated the virtues and accomplishments of women. Mythological scenes, such as the sacrifice of Polyxena or the story of Persephone, were often used to honor deceased women, emphasizing their nobility, piety, and familial devotion.

Inscriptions on tombs and sarcophagi also began to highlight the achievements of women, such as their roles as wives, mothers, and benefactors. This reflects a growing appreciation for women’s contributions to their families and communities.

3. Mythological and Historical Role Models

Roman art and literature increasingly used mythological and historical heroines as role models for women. Figures like Lucretia, Cornelia (mother of the Gracchi), and Dido were celebrated for their virtues, intelligence, and strength.

These figures provided a way to celebrate female achievements within the framework of traditional Roman values, such as pudicitia (modesty) and pietas (duty to family and gods).

4. Legal and Social Changes

During the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, Roman law began to grant women more rights and protections, particularly in matters of property ownership, inheritance, and marriage. These changes reflected a growing recognition of women’s roles as independent individuals and contributors to society.

The rise of the Stoic and Christian philosophies also emphasized the moral and spiritual equality of men and women, which may have contributed to a greater appreciation of female achievements.

5. Religious and Cultural Shifts

The spread of mystery religions (such as those of Isis and Cybele) and later Christianity provided new opportunities for women to participate in religious and communal life. These religions often celebrated female deities and allowed women to take on leadership roles, further elevating their status in society.

The cult of Vesta, with its priestesses (the Vestal Virgins), also highlighted the importance of women in maintaining the spiritual well-being of the state.

6. Artistic Representations of Women

Roman art from the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE increasingly depicted women in roles that emphasized their agency and accomplishments. For example:

Portraiture: Realistic portraits of women, often accompanied by inscriptions, celebrated their virtues and achievements.

Mythological Scenes: Women were frequently depicted as central figures in mythological narratives, such as Ariadne, Danaids, or Polyxena, symbolizing their strength, resilience, and moral integrity.

Historical Reliefs: Women were sometimes included in public monuments, such as the Ara Pacis, where they were shown participating in religious and civic rituals.

7. Literary Recognition

Roman literature from this period, such as the works of Plutarch and Juvenal, began to include more nuanced portrayals of women, acknowledging their intelligence, influence, and contributions to society.

While some authors, like Juvenal, were critical of women’s growing independence, others, like Plutarch, celebrated their virtues and achievements in works such as Mulierum Virtutes (On the Virtues of Women - https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text...).

Conclusion

By the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, Roman society had begun to place a greater emphasis on female achievements, both in public and private life. This shift was reflected in art, literature, and funerary practices, where women were increasingly celebrated for their virtues, contributions, and roles as wives, mothers, and community members. While Roman society remained patriarchal, the growing visibility and recognition of women’s accomplishments marked an important cultural development, paving the way for further changes in later periods. The use of mythological and historical figures like Polyxena to commemorate women on sarcophagi is a testament to this evolving appreciation for female virtue and achievement."

To see if ClaudeAI could provide any additional insight on the fresco in the House of the Physician (or Judgement of Solomon) I uploaded Discanno's painting to it and pointed out it depicts a tribunal. It also includes a temporary tent-like shelter as may have been erected by the Greeks outside of Troy during the Trojan War. There also appears to be an individual wearing a turban-like headdress standing behind the altar with the sacrificial victim while an individual wearing a long robe and what appears to be a pallium pleads with the tribunal. I told it scholars have now discounted the "judgement of Solomon" interpretation and I've also discovered there is no evidence of a Jewish community in Pompeii although symbols like menorah have been found in some graffiti. When I asked it to suggest an alternative myth, Claude replied:

"Given these details - particularly the tribunal setting, the military tent/shelter, and the mix of Eastern and Greek-style clothing - this fresco could potentially be depicting the sacrifice of Polyxena from the Trojan War cycle. Let me analyze why this interpretation might fit:

The setting: The tent-like structure you noted would align with the Greek military camp outside Troy where Polyxena's sacrifice took place.

The tribunal: While not typically emphasized in retellings, the Greek leaders would have needed to convene to discuss Achilles' ghostly demand for Polyxena's sacrifice.

The mixed attire: The presence of both Greek-style and Eastern/turban-like clothing could represent the Greeks and Trojans, appropriate for this post-war moment."

I asked, though, if the early Greeks used tribunals in a military setting. ClaudeAI responded:

"The early Greeks did have forms of collective military decision-making, though not formal tribunals in the Roman sense. In Homer's epics, we see the council of kings/leaders (boulē) where major decisions were debated. The Iliad frequently shows Agamemnon consulting with other Greek leaders like Odysseus, Diomedes, and Nestor in what's called the boulē.

However, this fresco's depiction of a more formal tribunal setting with elevated seating appears more Roman in style. This is interesting because it suggests the artist may have been interpreting the Greek myth through a Roman cultural lens - a common practice in Roman art where Greek stories were depicted using contemporary Roman visual vocabulary and institutions.

This "Romanization" of Greek myths was very common in Pompeii and throughout the Roman world. Artists would often depict Greek mythological scenes using familiar Roman architectural elements, dress, and institutional settings that their audience would recognize.

So while the early Greeks did make military decisions collectively through the boulē, the formal tribunal setting we see in this fresco likely reflects Roman artistic conventions rather than historical Greek practices."

I researched boulēs a little more and they normally contained hundreds of men, not just three. Although ClaudeAI could have been correct about Romanization of the scene, I thought about information DeepSeek had provided and realized the tribunal could have been composed of Phoenix, Ajax, and Odysseus, the three men who convinced Achilles to return to battle knowing it meant his prophesied death.

When I proposed this to DeepSeek, it found my theory quite plausible, saying:

"Your theory that the three members of the tribunal depicted in the fresco could be Phoenix, Odysseus, and Ajax is both intriguing and plausible. These three figures played significant roles in the story of Achilles and the Trojan War, and their involvement in the events leading to Polyxena's sacrifice makes them strong candidates for the tribunal members in the painting. Let’s break this down further:

The Roles of Phoenix, Odysseus, and Ajax in the Myth

Phoenix: As Achilles' mentor and father figure, Phoenix was deeply involved in Achilles' life and decisions. He was one of the three emissaries sent to persuade Achilles to return to battle in the Iliad. His central role in Achilles' story makes him a fitting candidate for the central figure in the tribunal scene.

Odysseus: Known for his cunning and leadership, Odysseus was another key figure in the Greek camp during the Trojan War. He was also one of the emissaries sent to Achilles and later played a significant role in the events following Achilles' death, including the demand for Polyxena's sacrifice. His strategic mind and authority would make him a natural member of the tribunal.

Ajax: The great warrior Ajax was the third emissary sent to Achilles. Although he was less successful in persuading Achilles compared to Phoenix and Odysseus, his status as one of the foremost Greek heroes and his involvement in the war make him a logical choice for the third member of the tribunal.

Why This Theory Fits

Mythological Consistency: The involvement of Phoenix, Odysseus, and Ajax in the events surrounding Achilles' life and death aligns with the mythological narrative. Their roles as emissaries and leaders in the Greek camp would logically extend to their participation in the decision to sacrifice Polyxena.

Visual Representation: In Roman art, figures are often depicted in ways that reflect their status and role in the story. Phoenix, as the central mentor figure, could be shown in the middle, with Odysseus and Ajax flanking him as fellow leaders. This composition would emphasize their collective authority in deciding Polyxena's fate.

Emotional Weight: The presence of these three figures would add emotional depth to the scene. Phoenix, in particular, might be depicted with a sense of solemnity or even regret, given his close relationship with Achilles and the tragic outcome of the war.

Your theory that the tribunal members are Phoenix, Odysseus, and Ajax is well-supported by the mythological context and their roles in the story of Achilles. While definitive identification is challenging due to the lack of explicit evidence, the composition and narrative logic make this interpretation highly plausible. If correct, the fresco would not only depict a key moment in the Trojan War's aftermath but also highlight the enduring influence of these three figures in the mythological tradition."

I also asked DeepSeek about the feminine figure standing behind the altar wearing a turban-like headdress.

"The depiction of the feminine figure with a turban-like headdress in the fresco is an intriguing detail that could provide important clues about her identity and cultural context. In Roman art, head coverings and specific hairstyles were often used to denote ethnicity, social status, or cultural affiliation. Let’s explore the possibility of Trojan or Eastern women being depicted with such headdresses in Roman art.

Trojan and Eastern Women in Roman Art

Cultural Signifiers: Roman artists frequently used clothing and headdresses to distinguish between different cultures, particularly when depicting mythological or historical scenes. Trojan and Eastern women (such as those from Asia Minor or Persia) were often portrayed with distinctive head coverings to emphasize their foreignness and exoticism.

Turbans and Veils: Turbans, veils, and other head coverings were commonly associated with Eastern cultures in Roman art. For example:

Trojan Women: In depictions of the Trojan War, Trojan women like Hecuba, Andromache, and Cassandra are sometimes shown with veils or head coverings that reflect their Eastern origins.

Eastern Influences: Roman art often borrowed from Hellenistic traditions, which had a long history of depicting Eastern women with elaborate headdresses, including turbans, veils, and diadems.

Symbolism of Head Coverings: Head coverings could also carry symbolic meaning. For example, a veil might signify modesty, mourning, or submission, while a turban could denote royalty or high status. In the context of Polyxena's sacrifice, a head covering might emphasize her role as a noble victim or her connection to her Trojan heritage.

Then I asked DeepSeek about the male figure wearing a long robe and pallium apparently pleading for Polyxena. It replied:

"The Pallium in Roman Art and Culture

The pallium was a rectangular piece of fabric, similar to the Greek himation, and was worn draped over one or both shoulders. It was often associated with:

Philosophers and Intellectuals: The pallium was a hallmark of philosophers, symbolizing wisdom, contemplation, and a connection to Greek culture.

Priests and Religious Figures: The garment was also worn by priests or individuals involved in religious rituals, emphasizing their sacred role.

Eastern or Foreign Figures: In Roman art, the pallium was sometimes used to denote Eastern or foreign identity, particularly for figures from Greek or Trojan mythology.

How the Pallium Fits the Fresco’s Male Figure

Given that the male figure in the fresco is wearing a draped garment that isn’t as expansive as a cloak, the pallium is an excellent candidate for what he is wearing. Here’s how this fits into the scene:

Cultural Identity: If the figure is Trojan, the pallium would emphasize his Eastern origins, distinguishing him from the more militaristic or Romanized Greeks. This aligns with Roman artistic conventions for depicting Trojans as exotic and noble.

Status and Role: The pallium could signify that the figure is a priest, elder, or noble, reinforcing his high status and his role in the ritual of Polyxena's sacrifice. The garment’s simplicity and elegance would convey dignity and solemnity.

Emotional Tone: The draped pallium might also enhance the emotional weight of the scene. Its flowing lines could suggest vulnerability, supplication, or grief, as the figure pleads for Polyxena’s life.

Possible Identities for the Figure Wearing a Pallium

If the male figure is wearing a pallium, this narrows down the possible interpretations of his identity:

A Trojan Priest or Elder:

The pallium would be appropriate for a priest or elder involved in the sacrificial ritual. Its draped form would emphasize his sacred role and connection to the divine.

This interpretation aligns with the idea that the figure is pleading for Polyxena’s life on behalf of the Trojans.

A Trojan Noble or Prince:

A Trojan prince, such as Helenus or Deiphobus, might wear a pallium to signify his noble status and cultural identity. The garment would distinguish him from the Greeks and emphasize his role as a mourner or advocate.

A Philosopher or Wise Figure:

While less likely in this context, the pallium could symbolize wisdom or moral authority, suggesting that the figure is appealing to reason or justice in his plea for Polyxena.

A Generic Supplicant:

The figure might represent a symbolic or generic Trojan man, with the pallium emphasizing his humanity and the tragic consequences of the war.

Why the Pallium Makes Sense in This Context

The pallium’s association with Eastern figures, priests, and nobility makes it a fitting choice for the male figure in the fresco. Its draped form would allow the artist to convey both the figure’s cultural identity and his emotional state, adding depth and nuance to the scene. Additionally, the pallium’s simplicity contrasts with the more elaborate clothing of other figures, drawing attention to the pleading figure and his role in the narrative.

Comparison to Other Roman Depictions

In Roman art, the pallium is frequently seen in depictions of:

Philosophers: Figures like Socrates or Seneca are often shown wearing a pallium, symbolizing their intellectual pursuits.

Priests: Religious figures, especially those involved in Eastern cults or rituals, are depicted in draped garments like the pallium.

Trojan Figures: In scenes from the Trojan War, Trojans are often shown in flowing, draped clothing to emphasize their Eastern identity and nobility.

Conclusion

The pallium is a strong candidate for the garment worn by the male figure in the fresco. Its draped form, cultural associations, and symbolic weight make it a fitting choice for a Trojan priest, noble, or supplicant pleading for Polyxena’s life. This interpretation not only aligns with the artistic conventions of Roman art but also enriches our understanding of the scene’s emotional and narrative complexity. The use of the pallium highlights the figure’s dignity, cultural identity, and role in the tragic events of the Trojan War."

I asked if Polyxena had served as a priestess but DeepSeek said no. So I asked why a Trojan priest might plead for her life and DeepSeek replied:

"Why a Priest Might Plead for Polyxena

Even if Polyxena was not a priestess, a Trojan priest might still plead for her life for several reasons:

Ritual Purity: As a princess and a young maiden, Polyxena might be seen as a symbol of purity and innocence, making her sacrifice particularly significant from a religious perspective.

Divine Will: The priest might argue that the gods do not demand her death, or that her sacrifice would incur divine wrath rather than favor.

Human Compassion: The priest could represent the human desire to protect the innocent and resist the brutality of war, adding emotional depth to the scene.

Conclusion

While Polyxena is not described as a priestess in the myths, the involvement of a Trojan priest in the fresco makes sense given the religious and ritual context of her sacrifice. The priest’s plea for her life could symbolize the moral, ethical, and spiritual conflicts surrounding her death, as well as the broader tragedy of the Trojan War. This interpretation adds layers of meaning to the scene, highlighting the intersection of religion, culture, and human emotion in the aftermath of war."

DeepSeek also suggested the figure could be a Trojan noble or prince, such as Helenus or Deiphobus, both who survived the sack of Troy, wearing the pallium to denote their high status. The garment might also reflect their Eastern identity, distinguishing him from the Greeks. The draped fabric could symbolize their grief or supplication, as they plead for Polyxena's life.

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