From Singular to Plural: Eros, Erotes, and the Emergence of Psyche in Hellenistic Art

 by Mary Harrsch © 2025

Today, I came across Wilhelm Zahn’s drawing of a group of cupids (erotes) dancing to music from a triclinium in the House of the Suonatrici (female musicians) (IX 3,24) in Pompeii.

1826 drawing by Wilhelm Zahn of a fresco of erotes and psyches dancing to music discovered in the House of the Suonatrici (female musicians) (IX 3,5) in Pompeii

 I was curious when Cupid evolved into multiple erotes in Greek art so I asked ClaudeAI about this. It replied:

“The evolution from a single Eros (Cupid) to multiple erotes in Greek art was a gradual process that occurred primarily during the Hellenistic period (323-31 BCE).

In early Greek art and mythology (Archaic and early Classical periods, 700-450 BCE), Eros was typically depicted as a singular divine figure - often portrayed as a beautiful young man with wings. This representation aligned with early mythological texts where Eros was considered a primordial deity or the son of Aphrodite.

The multiplication into groups of erotes (winged child-like figures) began appearing in Greek art during the 4th century BCE, becoming particularly prominent in the Hellenistic period. These multiple erotes were typically shown as chubby infants or small children with wings, engaging in playful activities or serving as attendants to Aphrodite.

The transition reflected broader changes in Greek artistic sensibilities and religious conceptions, as Hellenistic art tended toward more ornamental, dramatic, and emotionally expressive representations compared to earlier periods. The proliferation of erotes also coincided with the increased personification of abstract concepts in Greek art and culture during this era.”

In this example the erotes are accompanied by female psyches with butterfly wings instead of the erotes bird-like wings. So, I asked Claude AI, “When did psyches with butterfly wings begin to appear with erotes in Greek art?” It replied:

“The motif of Psyche with butterfly wings appearing alongside erotes (plural Cupids) emerged during the Hellenistic period (323-31 BCE), with more frequent depictions developing during the Roman Imperial period (1st century BCE - 4th century CE).

In Greek mythology, Psyche was a mortal woman who became the lover of Eros/Cupid in a story that gained popularity during the Hellenistic era. The word "psyche" in Greek means both "soul" and "butterfly," which led to the symbolic representation of Psyche with butterfly wings to distinguish her from the bird-winged erotes.

The earliest surviving depictions of Psyche with butterfly wings are found primarily in:

1. Roman wall paintings from Pompeii and Herculaneum (1st century CE)
2. Roman sarcophagi featuring the Cupid and Psyche myth (2nd-3rd centuries CE)
3. Gemstones and cameos from the late Hellenistic and Roman periods

These representations often show Psyche as a young woman with butterfly wings alongside one or more erotes with bird wings, creating a visual distinction between the two types of supernatural beings. The pairing became particularly popular in funerary art, where the myth of Cupid and Psyche represented the soul's journey and immortality.

While the iconography became firmly established during the Roman period, the conceptual foundation and earliest artistic explorations likely began in the Hellenistic Greek world in the 3rd-2nd centuries BCE, though fewer examples from this period have survived.

[Furthermore,] Psyche as an individual goddess with a specific identity and mythology emerged during the Hellenistic period [too,] rather than being recognized by pre-Hellenistic Greeks.

In pre-Hellenistic Greek thought (before about 323 BCE), the word "psyche" (ψυχή) primarily referred to the concept of the soul or life-breath rather than a personified goddess. While early Greek literature and philosophy discussed the nature of the soul extensively, there's little evidence of any cult worship or widespread mythological tradition surrounding a goddess named Psyche during the Archaic or Classical periods.

The detailed myth of Psyche as the mortal woman who becomes the lover of Eros (Cupid) and eventually achieves immortality appears to have developed during the Hellenistic period. The most complete surviving version comes from Apuleius' "Metamorphoses" (also known as "The Golden Ass"), written in the 2nd century CE, but the core myth likely developed several centuries earlier.

Evidence suggests that the personification of Psyche and her myth gained particular prominence in the Hellenistic period, when:

1. There was increased interest in personifications of abstract concepts
2. Art and literature explored more emotional and romantic themes
3. Mystery religions focused on personal transformation and immortality gained popularity

This pattern aligns with other developments in Greek religion during the Hellenistic era, when many personifications and abstract concepts became more fully realized as divine or semi-divine figures with their own mythologies.”

Then I asked, “Was there any kind of origin story for the multiple erotes compared to Cupid (Eros) individually being a son of Venus?” Claude AI replied:

“There weren't fully developed origin stories for the multiple erotes that match the detailed mythological parentage of the primary Eros/Cupid as the son of Venus/Aphrodite. Instead, the multiplication of erotes appears to have been more of an artistic and conceptual development rather than one anchored in specific mythological narratives.

In literary sources, there are a few approaches that suggest conceptual origins:

1. Association with Venus: Some Roman writers implied that the multiple erotes were attendants or companions to Venus rather than having their own distinct birth stories. They functioned as extensions of her divine power rather than independent deities with complex origins.
2. Nymphs and nature spirits: In some poetic contexts, erotes were grouped with nymphs and other minor nature spirits, suggesting they might share similar origins as manifestations of natural forces.
3. Personifications: As Greek and Roman mythology evolved, there was a tendency to personify abstract concepts. The erotes can be understood as personifications of different aspects of love and desire rather than beings with specific birth narratives.
4. Philosophical conceptions: Some philosophical traditions, particularly those influenced by Plato, discussed multiple forms of love (similar to his description in the Symposium). While not explicit origin stories, these philosophical frameworks may have influenced the artistic representation of multiple love deities.

The multiplication of erotes seems to have been primarily an artistic convention that developed to represent the pervasive influence of love in various contexts, rather than being driven by specific mythological narratives about their creation or birth. This stands in contrast to the primary Eros/Cupid, whose parentage (typically as the son of Venus/Aphrodite, though sometimes with other origins in earlier Greek sources) was a well-established part of classical mythology.”

I have seen frescos from Pompeii depicting scenes with both Cupid and erotes where Cupid is usually represented larger (and older) than the smaller entities so I asked ClaudeAI about this. It replied:

“In Roman art, particularly in Pompeian frescoes, there is indeed evidence of hierarchical scaling when depicting Cupid/Eros alongside multiple erotes. This artistic convention served to distinguish between their different roles and symbolic significance.

When Cupid appears as the singular, primary deity representing romantic love (especially in narrative scenes depicting the Cupid and Psyche myth), he is often portrayed larger than the subsidiary erotes. This size differentiation helps viewers identify the main Cupid figure as the actual god of love - the son of Venus/Aphrodite - rather than one of the generic putti-like attendants.

The smaller erotes typically function as:

• Atmospheric elements suggesting a romantic environment
• Attendants or servants to the main deities (Venus or Cupid)
• Visual symbols reinforcing the theme of love

This hierarchical approach is consistent with broader Roman artistic practices where size often indicated divine importance or narrative centrality. In scenes focusing specifically on the Cupid and Psyche myth, Cupid is typically depicted adult-sized or adolescent-sized, while in more decorative compositions featuring generic love themes, the distinction might be less pronounced.

We can see this pattern in several surviving examples from Pompeii and Herculaneum, where narrative frescoes depicting the actual myth show Cupid as larger and more individualized, while decorative panels (like those in your image from the House of Suonatrici) might show more equal-sized figures engaged in parallel activities representing the atmosphere of love rather than specific mythological events.”

I uploaded an image of a painted reproduction of the scene from one of Niccolini’s books produced in 1852. 

1852 painting of the entire wall containing scenes of erotes and psyches found in a triclinium of the House of the Suonatrici (IX 3,5) in Pompeii published in an 1854 book by Fausto and Felice Niccolini..The original fresco panel of the dancing psyche (top row, far right, of the vignettes) was removed to the archaeological museum in Naples but very little of it survives today except the lower right-hand corner 

Then, I asked if there was more symbolism it could ascertain from the image. ClaudeAI replied:

“The arrangement shows multiple scenes of these divine figures engaged in activities that mirror elite Roman leisure - dining, dancing, and musical performances under decorative canopies or tents. This is significant for several reasons:

1. Mirroring of Roman social activities: The scenes depict banqueting, entertainment, and leisure pursuits that would have actually taken place in the very room where the painting was displayed. Roman diners would see mythological beings engaged in similar activities to their own, creating a playful parallel between divine and mortal worlds.
2. Symbolic associations: In a triclinium specifically, these images carried multiple meanings:
• The erotes (cupids) connected to love and pleasure
• The psyches (with butterfly wings) representing the soul and immortality
• Together, they evoked themes of sensual pleasure balanced with spiritual elevation
3. Social display: Such elaborate mythological scenes demonstrated the homeowner's cultural sophistication and knowledge of Greek mythology, important for social standing in Pompeii.
4. Religious significance: Beyond mere decoration, these figures had religious associations with Venus/Aphrodite (mother of Cupid/Eros) [and patron goddess of Pompeii] and the mystery cults that were popular in the Roman world.
5. Theatrical quality: The tent-like structures and arrangement into distinct scenes creates a theatrical effect, as if watching multiple acts of a performance - appropriate for a space dedicated to entertainment.

This type of decoration was particularly popular in the Fourth Style of Pompeian wall painting (approximately 62-79 CE), characterized by elaborate architectural frameworks and mythological vignettes.”

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