Sasanian military organization

 When Ardashir I (r. 224-241 CE) founded the Sasanian Empire, he created a  standing army which was under his personal command and whose officers were separate from satraps, local princes and nobility. He restored the Achaemenid military organizations, retained the Parthian cavalry model, and employed new types of armor and siege warfare techniques. 

Organizationally, the Shahanshah (the King of Kings) served as the head of the military and there were four military commanders under his authority. Initially, the offices of the Great King of Armenia, King of Meshan, King of Gilan, and King of Sakastan fulfilled these roles. After the reforms of Khosrow I, there were four spahbeds (Army Commanders), each for a cardinal direction.

In the character of their warfare, the Persians of the Sasanian period differed greatly, though, from their forebears under the Achaemenid kings. The war chariot was no longer used, the  elephant corps was advanced to a very prominent and important position, and cavalry on the Parthian model, including both heavy cataphracts and horse-archers became pre-eminent. Therefore, the strategic components became the elephants, the horse, the archers, and the ordinary footmen.

The Sasanian army employed foreign mercenary troops from many different regions. The most frequently used types of mercenaries were Kurdish mercenaries from the northern boundary of the Zagros, who begin to appear in 6th-century sources, tribal people from Gilan and Daylam, Caucasian Albanians (regarded as elite soldiers equal to Huns in the 4th-century), and Sakastanis.

The Parthian Azadan nobility continued to serve the Sasanian state, forming a minor aristocracy of lower-ranking administrators, mostly living on their small estates and providing the cavalry backbone of the Sasanian army. Most prestigious among them were the armored Asvaran, sometimes referred to as Savaran, who were the forerunners of  the later Arabian Faris, the Caucasian horsemen, the Indian Sowar (derived from Persian Savar), and the Turkish Tarkhans.

During the early Sasanian period, these fiercesome warriors battled forces of the Roman emperors Valerian, Galerius, and Julian and later the forces of the Byzantine emperors Justin I and II and Justinian directed by his famous general Belisarius.

Sasanian helmet, 4th century CE at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Surviving examples of Sasanian armor are extremely rare, particularly in such stunning condition as this helmet. It consists of a bronze band forming a rim and supporting two arched bands that cross over the top. Between these arched bands there are triangular plates of iron that are overlaid with sheets of silver worked in scale patterns. Sasanian silversmiths were renowned for their craftsmanship.

Iranian Bronze Silver and Iron Helmet 225 to 650 CE that I photographed at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art in Los Angeles, California

Reconstruction of a Sasanian cataphract in Oxford courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor John Tremelling

Remnants of a Sasanian gold sword with two-point suspension, 600-650 CE at the Sackler Gallery of Asian Art at the Smithsonian in Washington D.C. courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor Quadell.

Sasanian silver plate depicting an equestrian single combat scene at the Azerbaijan Museum in Tabriz, Iran courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor Alborz Fallah.  Some scholars think this plate, although in the style of Sasanian plates usually featuring hunt scenes, was likely  manufactured in the late 1920s or 1930s when Iranian national awareness was enhanced by modern archaeological research.

Shahnameh illustration of the Sasanian general Sukhra fighting the Hephthalites (484 CE) attributed to Bashdan Qara ca. 1530-35, courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor Abu'l Qasim Firdausi.

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Byzantine warriors of the 4th - 5th centuries BCE

The Byzantine army evolved from that of the late Roman Empire, but it became considerably more sophisticated in strategy, tactics and organization over time. The language of the army was still Latin, until the 6th century when Greek became the official language of the entire empire. Unlike the Roman legions, though, the Byzantines' strength was in its cavalry, especially the armored cataphracts, which evolved from the clibanarii of the late empire. 

The Romans introduced armored cavalry after clashing with cataphracts at the battles of Magnesia in 190 BCE against the Seleucids, Trigranocerta in 69 BCE against the Armenians, and the disastrous Carrhae in 53 BCE against the Parthians. Parthian cataphracts became a constant threat from the 1st - 2nd centuries CE then their threat was replaced by the cataphracts of the Sassanian Persians in the 3rd century CE.

Marc Antony and Cleopatra employed contarii (from the Greek kontarioi meaning lancers) in the 1st century BCE and, when Thracia became a Roman province in 45 CE, the Thracian aristocracy provided Rome with heavy armored lancers.  According to Josephus, cavalrymen with long spears were used by Flavian troops in 69 CE, too, although scholars have not been able to determine if Vespasian raised regular units of contarii.  However, by the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian (98-138 CE) armored cavalrymen and, sometimes , completely armored horses, began to appear in allied cavalry recruited in the Eastern provinces. 

Contarii wielded the contus ( Greek kontos), using it two-handed.  The later Byzantine kontarion used by Byzantine cataphracts, from about 1100 CE onwards, was used single-handed couched under the armpit.

The kontarioi were supported by heavy infantry, the armored skutatoi (a name derived from the scutum, the classic rectangular Roman shield) and the psiloi, light infantry who usually acted as skirmishers and missile troops, including archers and slingers, and who fought irregularly in a loose formation and wore little armor.  The skutatoi were armed with the deadly, three metre-long kontarion, derived from the kontos lance favored by cataphracts. Some skutatoi were positioned on the front lines to repel cavalry, with their sword-armed counterparts behind them, ready for the melee that followed the initial charge. 

The Byzantines valued intelligence and discipline in their soldiers far more than bravery or brawn. The "Romaíoi stratiótai" were a loyal force composed of citizens willing to fight to defend their homes and their state to the death, augmented by mercenaries. The training was very much like that of the legionaries, with the soldiers taught close combat techniques with their swords, spears and axes, along with the extensive practice of archery. The Byzantine army's reliance on heavier cavalry, more archers and other missile troops, and fewer Foederati may have been contributing factors to the eastern empire's survival after the fall of the Western Empire in 476 CE. 

Bronze Byzantine Warrior of the 4th-5th century CE at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.

Image: Illustration of Roman Heavy Cavalry by Andrey Negin for Osprey Publishing's title, "Roman Heavy Cavalry (1): Cataphractarii and Clibanarii, 1st century BCE-5th century CE.

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Steely Gaze Part of Cavalry Attire Since 6th century BCE

1st century CE Bronze Roman Cavalry Mask.  Image by Ancient Art via FlickrAn auction in Britain has made a millionaire of the metal detectorist who discovered a fantastic Roman parade helmet and mask in a field near the little English hamlet of Crosby Garrett.  Whenever I see such a beautiful piece of art surface in a rather unlikely place I always wonder how it came to be discarded by the original owner.  The article in the UK's Daily Mail said the detectorist, who had searched the field for seven years, had only found bits of scrap metal and a few coins before discovering the 1st century CE cavalry helmet. 
The artifact looks so complete I was surprised to read that it was initially found in 67 fragments.  Some of the fragments showed traces of a white metal coating, indicating that the face mask would originally have been tinned to give the appearance of silver.  But, the silver on this helmet may have been removed in preparation for ritual burial much like the Xanten helmet unearthed in the late 1980s in an old arm of the Rhine River.   The Crosby Garrett mask had also been folded before burial, and placed with the visor face down, further suggesting that it may have been a votive offering.  
Surprisingly, researchers studying the Xanten helmet reconstructed it with folded iron like the original and found the mask could withstand the force of an arrow fired from a Roman ballistae.

A close examination showed that the helmets were forged from sheet iron, folded and wrought from several layers of iron, and covered with silver foil for decoration purposes. Remains of braided ribbons combined with circular bands around the head were found outside the skull piece. The textile applications proved to be made of horsehair. The fineness and the length indicate that selected hairs from the tail of the horse were used. The headbands were sometimes additionally padded with a woolen fabric to generate a certain relief. An ancient glue mix was used to fix the silver foil and the textile applications. It consisted of pitch, bitumen and fatty components. - Sylvia Mitschke, University of Sheffield, Questions of identities concerning Roman cavalry helmets

Heavily armored cavalry wearing masks actually dates back as far as the 6th century BCE.

One of the earliest known examples of heavy cavalry was discovered in Khwarezm, a region in central Asia near the Aral Sea. Excavations have revealed paintings of warriors clad in armor mounted on an armored horse, carrying a lance and bow. It is estimated that these horsemen were used in that region as early as the sixth century BC. It is also around this time that cavalry gradually began replacing chariots in the near east. Cultures such as the Assyrians, Achaemenids Persians, and later the Macedonians all successfully fielded heavy cavalry in their armies. The Acahemenids, in particular, were known to field heavily armored horsemen along with horse armor.- Cataphracts and Clibanarii of the Ancient World, All Empires Online History Community

 Graffito of a Parthian Cataphract at Dura
Europos.  Courtesy of  All Empires.

 The Seleucids, ruled by descendants of one of Alexander the Great's generals, first used heavily armored cataphracts against the Romans in the battle of Magnesia in 188 BCE.  Although the Seleucid army was defeated in the battle, including the cataphracts, Polybius tells us that the Romans began arming their cavalry in the "Greek style" during the late Republican period.  Both Plutarch and Crassus reported that the shear momentum of the rider and horse was capable of driving the spear through two men. I wonder if Crassus had any premonition of the fate of his troops at Carrhae when he recorded that observation?
Although Christie's did an excellent job of restoring the Crosby Garrett mask's aesthetic appearance I was disturbed to read that experts from the British Museum were not asked to examine the find before restoration took place so archaeological information may have been lost.  Apparently, even though this mask brought a staggering sum of money from anxious bidders, it was not legally considered "treasure" by the British government because it contained neither gold nor silver. 
Although no significant remains of Roman occupation was known in the general area where the mask was found, preliminary investigations that have been conducted since the discovery indicate a Roman occupation layer may be revealed with further excavation.


The article mentioned that there have been only two other complete helmets with masks found in Britain.  Fortunately, others have been found elsewhere to give us information about the variety of designs that were developed during the height of the Roman Empire.


 RomanLegions.info has a webpage with images of several distinctly different cavalry masks that have been found across Europe dating from the Augustan period through the 5th century. 

Bronze Roman cavalry mask 75-125 CE.  Image by mharrsch via Flickr

I have seen other examples at the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the one pictured at right produced from 75 - 125 CE at the Getty Villa.


Arrian of Nicomedia described the wearing of full face masks by cavalry troops on parade in the 2nd century CE:

The horsemen enter fully armed and those of distinguished station or superior in horsemanship wear gilded helmets of iron or bronze, to draw to themselves the gaze of the spectators. Unlike the helmets made for active service, these do not cover the heads and cheeks only but are made to fit round the faces of the riders with apertures for the eyes, so as to give protection to the eyes without interfering with vision. From the helmets hang yellow plumes — a matter of decor as much as of utility. As the horses move forward, the slightest breeze adds to the beauty of these plumes.—Arrian of Nicomedia

Related articles

• The battle for Cumbria's Roman helmet | Jonathan Jones (guardian.co.uk)

     

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