Eudaimonia and the corruption of excess

"Excess generally causes reaction, and produces a change in the opposite direction, whether it be in the seasons, or in individuals, or in governments." - Plato

In the case of drinking to excess, this change could result in the loss of virtue and well-being or, as the Greek philosophers termed it, Eudaimonia. Plato believed that individuals naturally feel unhappiness when they do something they know and acknowledge to be wrong.

Plato's student, Aristotle, agreed that although the pursuit of virtue, excellence, and the best within us was necessary to achieve eudaimonia, virtue in itself was not sufficient alone.  

"Aristotle believes that happiness and well-being come from how we live our lives,"   explains psychologist Catherine Moore, "And that's not in pursuit of material wealth, power, or honor."

Aristotle expounds upon ways to achieve the happy life in his work "Nichomacean Ethics."

"To be honest, a lot of Nichomacean Ethics is about what happiness isn’t," Moore points out, "Satisfying appetites is akin to a “life suitable to beasts." The pursuit of political power, material wealth, even fun and leisure, he (Aristotle) saw as “laughable things”, inferior to “serious things."

"Instead, happiness is an ‘intermediate’, or a ‘golden mean’ between deficiency and excess. One example of virtue as a mean between two extremes is courage – as a virtue, it’s halfway between recklessness and cowardice."

“He is happy who lives in accordance with complete virtue and is sufficiently equipped with external goods, not for some chance period but throughout a complete life.” – Aristotle, Nichomacean Ethics, Book I, Chapter 10

So, although Aristotle acknowledged  fate or luck does play a role in happiness, he believed an individual's disposition and talent could still be used to achieve it.

Which virtues does Plato value?  In his work "Republic" Plato describes a discussion among friends as to what a just republic would look like and four virtues are revealed:

Temperance (moderation) – or self-regulation, to avoid the vices and corruption caused by excess.

Courage (or fortitude) – to stand up for what we believe is right and good.

Justice – a social consciousness that plays a key part in maintaining societal order, and

Wisdom (practical wisdom, or prudence) – the pursuit of knowledge.

Again we see a reference to excess. These ideas were being exchanged at symposia of the 4th century BCE both in Greece and in the Greek colony of Magna Graecia in southern Italy. Plato, in his work "Gorgias", written about 380 BCE describes Magna Graecia as a place where discussion of the human soul abounded amid religious and philosophic speculation. Its proximity to and trade relations with Etruria would have also been a strong influence on Etruscan potters and may have served to inspire moralistic themes in art of the period. One possible example is a red-figured terracotta rhyton found in a tomb at Tarquinia.

"This unusual 4th century BCE vessel is composed of two mold-made faces set back to back: the upper one a bearded Greek warrior with curly hair and wearing a Corinthian helmet pushed up on top of his head, the lower one a caricature of a bearded man, perhaps a Syrian or Phoenician, with a broad nose, almond eyes, and thick, smiling lips." - Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

As is characteristic of many Janiform representations, it may portray two contrasting aspects of a single individual - the friendly face of the Greek warrior rendered realistically that is transformed into a caricature of a belligerent barbarian once the guest overindulges - a subtle caution about the corruption of excess. I think the fact that the barbarian visage is rendered as a caricature points to the artist's metaphorical intent.

Read more about Eudaimonic Well-Being here: 

https://positivepsychology.com/eudaimonia/

Images:  Etruscan rhyton attributed to the Bruschi Group, Late 4th century BCE - Late Classical or Early Hellenistic Period, now in the collections of the Museum of Fine Arts Boston, images courtesy of the museum.

Images:  Etruscan rhyton attributed to the Bruschi Group, Late 4th century BCE - Late Classical or Early Hellenistic Period, now in the collections of the Museum of Fine Arts Boston, images courtesy of the museum.

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Roman opponents: The Parthians

Yesterday I finished the Great Courses lecture series "Between the Rivers" presented by Professor Alexis Castor, Franklin and Marshall College.  The name of the course refers to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and covers over 3,000 years of history in the region of modern day Iraq.  One of the last lectures focused on the Parthians, originally a nomadic people from modern day Iran, that challenged the Seleucids, Alexander the Great's successors, in the region beginning in the 3rd century BCE.  The Parthians wrested control of the Silk Road from the Seleucids and finally captured their capital, Seleucia-on-the-Tigris, in 129 BCE.  The Parthians built their own capital nearby at Ctesiphon.

Although those of us who study Roman history are well aware of the dramatic Roman defeat of the legions led by Marcus Licinius Crassus at Carrhae, and the famous Parthian archers with their Parthian shot, I was not as familiar with their administration or that their coins featured Greek inscriptions.  The ruling dynasty, called the Arasacids after their first king Arsaces organized their empire rather loosely, allowing local control to remain intact and local economies to operate unmolested except for the payment of tribute, in some ways very similar to the Romans.  But, Parthian kings did not supply royal troops for defense.  Instead, they expected regional leaders to maintain their own armies.  This did result in the occasional attempt of a local leader to occasionally challenge the current king for the throne but it also provided flexibility so the Parthians could recover from military setbacks much more easily, resulting in the Parthian domination of the region for almost 500 years.

Three times in the 2nd century CE, the Romans attacked and captured Ctesiphon and the Parthians survived to fight another day.  It was not until Ctesiphon  was sacked by Septimius Severus in 197 CE who killed or enslaved the entire population of the Parthian capital were the Parthians weakened enough to allow their defeat a few decades later by the Sassanians, another Iranian people from within their own borders.

Artistically, the Parthians were skilled metalworkers and created beautiful objects in silver and gold usually featuring animal or mythological motifs.  I have photographed their artifacts at the Smithsonian's Arthur M. Sackler Gallery of Asian Art in Washington D.C., at the British Museum, at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, at the Getty Villa, and at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art.

Parthian Belt adornment with an eagle and its prey The Metropolitan Museum of Art 1st-2nd century CE

Parthian buckle bronze 150 BCE to 225 CE photographed at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art

Parthian buckle bronze 150 BCE to 225 CE photographed at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art

Closeup of a Parthian Wine Horn with Lion Protome Iran 1st century BCE - 1st century CE Silver and Gilt photographed at the Smithsonian's Sackler Gallery in Washington D.C.

Closeup of a Parthian Wine Horn with Lynx Protome Iran 1st century BCE - 1st century CE Silver and Gilt photographed at the Smithsonian's Sackler Gallery in Washington D.C.

Statue of a Parthian Prince at the National Museum in Iran courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor Dorieo

Parthian frieze from Ephesos 169 CE courtesy of the Ephesos Museum, Vienna.

Parthian gold earring shaped like an amphora 1st - 2nd century CE courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Harness Disk with Lion Attacking a Stag Parthian 225-100 BCE Silver and gold photographed at the Getty Villa.

Parthian Horse headpiece (Prometopidion) with a siren and a sphinx Parthian 200-100 BCE Silver photographed at the Getty Villa.

Closeup of Rhyton with Goat Protome Iran Parthian Period (150 BCE-225 CE) Silver with mercury gilding photographed at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art

Parthian man returning the eagle standards to Augustus after they were lost by Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC

Parthian Wine Horns with animal protomes Iran 1st century BCE - 1st century CE Silver and Gilt photographed at the Smithsonian's Sackler Gallery

Parthian Rhyton (Drinking horn) with lion Parthian 100-1 BCE Silver Gold and Garnet photographed at the Getty Villa.

Closeup of Rhyton with a Stag Parthian 50 BCE-50 CE Silver gold glass and garnet photographed at the Getty Villa

Rhyton with a Stag Parthian 50 BCE-50 CE Silver gold glass and garnet photographed at the Getty Villa

Parthian Silver Plate showing Dionysos either late Parthian or early Sasanian 2nd - 3rd century CE Afghanistan photographed at the British Museum

Parthian Silver Plate showing Dionysos either late Parthian or early Sasanian 2nd - 3rd century CE Afghanistan photographed at the British Museum

Silver-gilt rhyton for libations or drinking Greco-Parthian Hellenistic 2nd century BCE photographed at the Metropolitan Museum of Art

Parthian Vessel 150 BCE to 225 CE bronze photographed at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art

Parthian warrior from Nysa 2nd century BCE courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor Zereshk

Young Man With Parthian Costume Palmyra 3rd century CE at The Louvre courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor World Imaging

Parthian Mounted archer courtesy of the British Museum

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