Eudaimonia and the corruption of excess

"Excess generally causes reaction, and produces a change in the opposite direction, whether it be in the seasons, or in individuals, or in governments." - Plato

In the case of drinking to excess, this change could result in the loss of virtue and well-being or, as the Greek philosophers termed it, Eudaimonia. Plato believed that individuals naturally feel unhappiness when they do something they know and acknowledge to be wrong.

Plato's student, Aristotle, agreed that although the pursuit of virtue, excellence, and the best within us was necessary to achieve eudaimonia, virtue in itself was not sufficient alone.  

"Aristotle believes that happiness and well-being come from how we live our lives,"   explains psychologist Catherine Moore, "And that's not in pursuit of material wealth, power, or honor."

Aristotle expounds upon ways to achieve the happy life in his work "Nichomacean Ethics."

"To be honest, a lot of Nichomacean Ethics is about what happiness isn’t," Moore points out, "Satisfying appetites is akin to a “life suitable to beasts." The pursuit of political power, material wealth, even fun and leisure, he (Aristotle) saw as “laughable things”, inferior to “serious things."

"Instead, happiness is an ‘intermediate’, or a ‘golden mean’ between deficiency and excess. One example of virtue as a mean between two extremes is courage – as a virtue, it’s halfway between recklessness and cowardice."

“He is happy who lives in accordance with complete virtue and is sufficiently equipped with external goods, not for some chance period but throughout a complete life.” – Aristotle, Nichomacean Ethics, Book I, Chapter 10

So, although Aristotle acknowledged  fate or luck does play a role in happiness, he believed an individual's disposition and talent could still be used to achieve it.

Which virtues does Plato value?  In his work "Republic" Plato describes a discussion among friends as to what a just republic would look like and four virtues are revealed:

Temperance (moderation) – or self-regulation, to avoid the vices and corruption caused by excess.

Courage (or fortitude) – to stand up for what we believe is right and good.

Justice – a social consciousness that plays a key part in maintaining societal order, and

Wisdom (practical wisdom, or prudence) – the pursuit of knowledge.

Again we see a reference to excess. These ideas were being exchanged at symposia of the 4th century BCE both in Greece and in the Greek colony of Magna Graecia in southern Italy. Plato, in his work "Gorgias", written about 380 BCE describes Magna Graecia as a place where discussion of the human soul abounded amid religious and philosophic speculation. Its proximity to and trade relations with Etruria would have also been a strong influence on Etruscan potters and may have served to inspire moralistic themes in art of the period. One possible example is a red-figured terracotta rhyton found in a tomb at Tarquinia.

"This unusual 4th century BCE vessel is composed of two mold-made faces set back to back: the upper one a bearded Greek warrior with curly hair and wearing a Corinthian helmet pushed up on top of his head, the lower one a caricature of a bearded man, perhaps a Syrian or Phoenician, with a broad nose, almond eyes, and thick, smiling lips." - Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

As is characteristic of many Janiform representations, it may portray two contrasting aspects of a single individual - the friendly face of the Greek warrior rendered realistically that is transformed into a caricature of a belligerent barbarian once the guest overindulges - a subtle caution about the corruption of excess. I think the fact that the barbarian visage is rendered as a caricature points to the artist's metaphorical intent.

Read more about Eudaimonic Well-Being here: 

https://positivepsychology.com/eudaimonia/

Images:  Etruscan rhyton attributed to the Bruschi Group, Late 4th century BCE - Late Classical or Early Hellenistic Period, now in the collections of the Museum of Fine Arts Boston, images courtesy of the museum.

Images:  Etruscan rhyton attributed to the Bruschi Group, Late 4th century BCE - Late Classical or Early Hellenistic Period, now in the collections of the Museum of Fine Arts Boston, images courtesy of the museum.

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Living well in the Roman Empire

 As thou intendest to live when thou art gone out,...so it is in thy power to live here.  Marcus Aurelius.  Meditations.  Book 5.

Images: Some of my images from Hadrian's Villa taken way back on my first visit to Italy in 2005. All images licensed with Creative Commons Attribution courtesy of Mary Harrsch (Required).

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Roman emperor as pharaoh

A block that originally formed part of a screen wall that connected the four front columns and the sidewalls of the temple of Harendotes ("Horus the Avenger") on the island of Philae represents the "Baptism of Pharaoh," a purification ritual that was part of Egyptian coronation ceremonies. The gods Horus (not preserved) and the ibis-headed Thoth, god of wisdom, pours water, represented by streams of the hieroglyphs ankh (life) and was (dominion), over the head of the king. The pharaoh whose head is partially preserved is a Claudian emperor, most probably either Claudius or Nero as defined in the strip of hieroglyphs along the top of the relief.

Cornice Block with Relief Showing the Baptism of Pharaoh (either Claudius or Nero), 41–68 CE, from the Temple of Harendotes on the island of Philae, Egypt, Roman Period at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. 

As Pharaoh of Egypt, Nero adopted the royal titulary Autokrator Neron Heqaheqau Meryasetptah Tjemaahuikhasut Wernakhtubaqet Heqaheqau Setepennenu Merur ('Emperor Nero, Ruler of rulers, chosen by Ptah, beloved of Isis, the sturdy-armed one who struck the foreign lands, victorious for Egypt, ruler of rulers, chosen of Nun who loves him').  At 16 years old, Nero was the youngest sole emperor until Elagabalus who became emperor at the age of 14 in 218 CE. Perhaps this is reflected in the Egyptian relief depicting a young man with soft mouth.

According to Suetonius, at the end of his reign when his Praetorian Guard abandoned him, Nero toyed with the idea of fleeing to Parthia, throwing himself upon the mercy of Galba, or appealing to the people and begging them to pardon him for his past offences "and if he could not soften their hearts, to entreat them at least to allow him the prefecture of Egypt." Suetonius reports that the text of a speech to this effect was later found in Nero's writing desk, but that he dared not give it from fear of being torn to pieces before he could reach the Forum.

Nero as a boy 1st century CE, courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor Prioryman.

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The dark side of early Saturnalia

  Give to others readily, and cherish good hopes.  Marcus Aurelius. Meditations. Book 1.

Image: Month of December from the Chronography of 354 with Saturnalian dice on the table and a mask (oscilla) hanging above by the 4th century CE calligrapher Filocalus.  

Although Saturnalia is usually remembered for festivities, gift giving, and, in the ancient Roman world, role reversal between slaves and their masters, there was a less benevolent aspect of the chthonic god, Saturn that connected him to the underworld and its ruler Dis Pater also known as Pluto.  Ten days of gladiatorial events were presented by quaestors throughout December and early Christian critics of the 3rd century CE, in their anti-pagan campaigns, claimed the primeval Saturn had at one point before the establishment of the Republic, demanded sacrificial male victims (virorum victimis).  It was said, though, that when Hercules visited Italy, the civilizing demigod insisted that the practice be halted and the ritual reinterpreted. Instead of heads to Dis Pater, the Romans were to offer effigies or masks (oscilla).  Figurines (sigillaria) exchanged as gifts were also thought to represent token substitutes.

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The River of Forgetfulness

Near is thy forgetfulness of all things, and near the forgetfulness of thee by all. Marcus Aurelius.  Meditations.  Book 7.

Lethe, the river of forgetfulness, is one of the five rivers of the Greek underworld. The other four are Acheron (the river of sorrow), Cocytus (the river of lamentation), Phlegethon (the river of fire) and Styx (the river that separates Earth and the Underworld). According to Statius, it bordered Elysium, the final resting place of the virtuous. Ovid wrote that the river flowed through the cave of Hypnos, god of sleep, where its murmuring would induce drowsiness. The shades of the dead were required to drink the waters of the Lethe in order to forget their earthly life. In the Aeneid, Virgil (VI.703-751) writes that it is only when the dead have had their memories erased by the Lethe that they may be reincarnated.

Amongst authors in antiquity, the tiny Lima river between Norte Region, Portugal, and Galicia, Spain, was said to have the same properties of memory loss as the legendary Lethe River, being mistaken for it. In 138 BCE, the Roman general Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus sought to dispose of the myth, as it impeded his military campaigns in the area. He was said to have crossed the Lima and then called his soldiers from the other side, one by one, by name. The soldiers, astonished that their general remembered their names, crossed the river as well without fear. 

Image: Sleep and his half-brother death, 1874, by John William Waterhouse, courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.

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All things take place by change

Observe constantly that all things take place by change, and accustom thyself to consider that the nature of the Universe loves nothing so much as to change the things which are and to make new things like them. For everything that exists is in a manner the seed of that which will be.  Marcus Aurelius.  Meditations.  Book 4.

Image:  Mosaic of Tyche, of Beit She'an, ancient Scythopolis, in the northern district of Israel, wearing a crown with the town's walls, and holding a Cornucopia, with a Phoenix tree in it.  The site was originally settled during the Late Neolithic and Early Chalcolithic periods and continued during the Bronze Age.  During the 15th century BCE the site was conquered by Pharaoh Thutmose III and became an Egyptian military and administration center. But Beit She'an was destroyed during  the Assyrian conquest of the Levant by Tiglath-Pileser III in 732 BCE.   During the Hellenistic Period, the site was reoccupied by Scythian mercenaries who settled there as veterans, hence the name change to Scythopolis.  After Pompey made Judea part of the Roman empire in 63 BCE, Beit She'an was again rebuilt by Gabinius and became the leading city of the Decapolis.  The city flourished under the "Pax Romana", as evidenced by high-level urban planning and extensive construction, including the best preserved Roman theatre of ancient Samaria, as well as a hippodrome, a cardo and other trademarks of the Roman influence.  Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor Yuvalif.  Image digitally adjusted for perspective.

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Roman gaming and learning not to sweat the small stuff

Almost every day, I try to share a meaningful quote from the ancient sources such as this one from Marcus Aurelius:

Remember that the attention given to everything has its proper value and proportion. For thus thou wilt not be dissatisfied, if thou appliest thyself to smaller matters no further than is fit.  Marcus Aurelius.  Meditations.  Book 4.

While looking for artwork to illustrate it, I stumbled across this picture and was amazed.  Although I've seen Roman dice, knucklebones, and Romans of all ages playing these games of chance, I've never seen one of these gaming "towers" before!

Roman gaming tower image courtesy of the Rheinisches Landesmuseum, Bonn, Germany and Wikimedia Commons. I increased the size of the image with AI software.

This dice tower was found in Germania Inferior near the modern villages of Vettweis and Froitzheim, dating back to the fourth century, specifically around the time of Emperor Constantine.  As well as ornately carved pinnacles and dolphins, the tower contains text reading in translation: ‘Victory over the Picts, the enemies have been defeated, play in safety!’ (sort of the Roman version of 'not suitable for small children).

Along the back is the phrase ‘vtere felix vivas’ which can be translated as ‘use this and live with luck/happiness’ or more loosely ‘live happy and play well’. The tower is designed to eliminate the effects of loaded dice and prevent cheating in a gambling environment. According to the Rheinisches Landesmuseum in Bonn, Germany the top of the dice tower is open, allowing for the introduction of dice, and it contains three levels of projecting baffles which would produce random motion in the dice as they fell through the tower. The dice would then emerge at the base of the tower via a miniature flight of steps. The dice, while emerging, would ring three bells which formerly hung above the exit. (One of these bells survived intact).

"You can almost imagine the situation: a bunch of wealthy and influential Romans lose a lot of money in a provincial gambling house and suspect the proprietors of cheating (after all, why would they be more honest than modern casino-owners?). Faced with a scandal, the gambling house decides to invest in a number of elaborate devices to secure their reputation by supposedly eliminating these foul practices." - Alex Shaw,  https://earlyworks.weebly.com/roman-games-2.html

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The elevation of mind through examination

For nothing is so productive of elevation of mind as to be able to examine methodically and truly every object which is presented to thee in life. Marcus Aurelius. Meditations. Book 3.

This quote made me think of Pliny the Elder whose passion to examine things around him seemed boundless, so much so that it eventually cost him his life during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE.

Image: One of the Xanten Horse-Phalerae located in the British Museum with the inscription formed from punched dots: PLINIO PRAEF EQ; i.e. Plinio praefecto equitum, "Pliny prefect of cavalry". It may have been issued to every man in Pliny's unit. The figure is the bust of the emperor courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor Telemon.

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The Roman viewpoint on old age

We ought to consider not only that our life is daily wasting away and a smaller part of it is left, but another thing also must be taken into the account, that if a man should live longer, it is quite uncertain whether the understanding will still continue sufficient for the comprehension of things, and retain the power of contemplation which strives to acquire the knowledge of the divine and the human.  Marcus Aurelius.  Meditations.  Book 3.

Image:  Bronze Male Portrait from the House of the Citharist in Pompeii 1st century CE.  Portraits of aged Romans showed a ruthless adherence to the realistic features of old age, such as wrinkles, folds of loose, flabby skin, sunken cheeks, blemishes and balding heads. Old age was emphasized, even exaggerated. It is notable that the majority of the old men appear solemn, which was indicative of the gravitas of age.  The portraits revealed how these old people wanted to be seen and the depiction of old age is deliberate. These portraits suggest worthiness and dignified behaviour. Facial expression was seen as an expression of character and these portrait busts therefore gave moral judgements. The stern and serious-looking faces, with their exaggerated wrinkles and folds, were suggestive of years of hard work and experience. These old men seem comfortable with their age. Only the old who lived up to societal expectations could expect reverence. These old men looked as if they had done their duty and had rightfully earned their status and respect.

Rome’s competitive society was extremely conscious of glory and public status. Having a role to play in society provided an old man with this status, which in turn would nourish his self-confidence and self-esteem. Public distinction and worthiness had associations with dignity (dignitas), a highly desirable virtue in Roman ideology, commanding reverence and respect. For this reason, some old men were keen to promote a self-image of gravity, sobriety and virtuousness. - This is a brief quote from an excellent article on old age in Rome by Dr. Karen Cokayne of the University of Reading. I found it quite comprehensive with fascinating anecdotes.

https://www.brlsi.org/events-proceedings/proceedings/25020

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The Sacrifice of Publius Decius Mus

Publius Decius Mus recounts his prophetic dream to his troops during the Latin War by Jacob Matthias Schmutzer, 1733-1811, (PD)

Defend the belief that a public assembly ought to be kept pure, the Campus Martius holy, the body of every Roman citizen undefiled, and the right of liberty unassailable.  M. Tullius Cicero.  Speech before Roman Citizens on Behalf of Gaius Rabirius, Defendant, Against the Charge of treason.  Section 11.

According to Livy, during the Latin War, as the army marched near Capua, it was given to the two consuls in mutual dreams that the army whose general pledged himself and his foemen's host to the Dii Manes and Earth, would be victorious. Upon confirmation from the haruspices the two divulged a plan to their senior officers and their army, that they may not lose heart, for they intended that whosoever's wing should falter first, should so pledge his life to the gods of the underworld and the Earth.

Once the battle was engaged, the left wing began to falter and Decius Mus called upon the Pontifex Maximus, M. Valerius, to tell him the means by which to save the army. The pontifex prescribed the required ritual acts and a prayer (for which see devotio). After performing the religious ritual, the fully armored Decius Mus plunged his horse into the enemy with such supernatural vigor and violence that the awe-struck Latins soon refused to engage him, eventually bringing him down with darts. Even then, the Latins avoided his body, leaving a large space around it; and so the left wing of the Romans, once faltering, now swept into this weakness in the enemy lines. Manlius, conducting the right wing, held fast, allowing the Latins to use up their reserves, before crushing the enemy host between the renewed left and Samnite foederati at their flank, leaving only a quarter of the enemy to flee.

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Emulate the judgement of men who exercise great forethought

We, however, ought to emulate the judgement of men who exercise great forethought and are no less jealous for the reputation of the state than for their own—men who prefer a moderate competence with justice to great wealth unjustly gained. (condensed) Isocrates.  On the Peace.  Speech 8.  Section 93.

Image: Fragmentary Augustus equestrian statue from the National Archaeological Museum in Athens courtesy of Carole Raddato.

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Marcus Licinius Crassus: Overcompensation for deprivation

Everyone would rather be courted by his children as a man of means than beg of them as a needy person.  Lysias.  On The Property of Aristophanes.  Speech 19.  Section 37.

Image: Alexander the Great's sack of Thebes by the late Angus McBride. 

This image of Alexander the Great's sack of Thebes reminded me of Marcus Licinius Crassus and his money-making firefighters who he withheld until the landowner agreed to sell his burning property for a pittance.  Crassus' motivations, however, should be viewed in light of his earlier deprivations.  Marcus Licinius Crassus was a member of the gens Licinia, an old, financially modest, but highly respected plebeian family in Rome. He was the second of three sons born to the eminent senator and vir triumphalis Publius Licinius Crassus Dives (consul 97, censor 89 BCE).  His father  supported Sulla during the civil wars between Sulla and Gaius Marius.  The supporters of Gaius Marius hunted down his father and younger brother, who took their own lives, leaving Crassus to flee to Hispania where he struggled to survive from 87-84 BCE.  He eventually was able to recruit 2500 of his father's old clients and join Sulla's army. During Sulla's second civil war,  Crassus essentially rescued Sulla's main force during the decisive battle outside the Colline Gate and was thus instrumental in Sulla's quest to become master of Rome.  Then Crassus began to rebuild his family's lost fortune begining with the acquisition of property during Sulla's proscriptions. By the time Crassus became one of the First Triumvirate, he was the richest man in Rome.

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Condemn those who squander their patrimony

Condemn all those persons who have made a habit of squandering both their patrimony and whatever they can get from elsewhere on the most disgraceful pleasures.  Lysias.  On The Property of Aristophanes.  Speech 19.  Section 10.

Image: Young Julio-Claudian on horseback at the British Museum, 1st century CE, courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.

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The consequences of lying

If liars are convicted of lying, they will suffer nothing worse than their actual lot, while if they succeed in deceiving you they will be rid of their present troubles. Yet surely such men as these, whether accusers or witnesses, should win no credit, when they have a great profit to make for themselves by their statements concerning others. Lysias. For Callias. Speech 5. Section 4.

Image: Geta (co-emperor with Caracalla) dying in his mother's arms by Jacques-Augustin-Catherine Pajou (1766-1828) courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro.

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A lesson from Lysias: Men who have spent their lives committing serious offences acting like they performed a great service

 Men, having spent their lives in committing serious offences and incurring a variety of troubles, make their speeches today with an air of having performed a great service.  Lysias.  For Callias.  Speech 5.  Section 3.

Image:  A colorized version of a 1906 artist's imaginative recreation of one of Caligula's Nemi ships, sadly destroyed in World War II.  The image originally appeared as an antique halftone photographic print in "Scientific American." (PD)

A rather concise list of Caligula's shortcomings:

https://bootheglobalperspectives.com/article/1503867119WBG188242364/what-we-can-learn-from-history-caligula-emperor-of-the-roman-empire

A nice summary article with pictures of objects recovered from the Nemi ships

https://hubpages.com/education/Roman-Emperor-Caligula-and-the-Nemi-Barges

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Designing persons are dangerous to all not just the miscreant

Designing persons make life no less dangerous for those who have done no wrong than for those who are guilty of many misdeeds. Lysias. For Callias. Speech 5. Section 2.

Image: A modern sculpture (above) of Lucius Cornelius Sulla in his younger years from 3D modeler Piersie of the CG Society courtesy of TurboSquid. I saw this image while browsing images of Sulla and wondered about its origins. Although it lacked the fine detail of most Hellenistic portraits so I assumed it was modern, I was intrigued by the sculptor's ability to produce a likeness that would reflect Sulla's countenance some years younger than the famous Roman-era portrait thought to be him (below) at the Glyptothek in Munich (photo by Wikimedia Commons contributor Bibi Saint-Pol).

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A Despot's Course

Those who attempt a despot's course must encounter the disasters which befall despotic power and be afflicted by the very things which they inflict upon others.  Isocrates.  On The Peace.  Speech 8.  Section 91.

Note: Surprisingly, Aristotle promoted the concept of oriental despotism. Aristotle asserted that oriental despotism was not based on force, but on consent. Hence, fear could not be said to be its motivating force, but rather the servile nature of those enslaved, which would feed upon the power of the despot master. Sounds totally appalling to me!

Image:  Battle of Alexander versus Darius by Pietro da Cortona, between 1644 and 1650, at the Capitoline Museums in Rome, Italy courtesy of the Google Art Project and Wikimedia Commons.

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Those who desire not to rule but to dominate

Those who desire... not to rule but to dominate—words which are thought to have the same meaning, although between them there is the utmost difference. For it is the duty of those who rule to make their welfare [provide for the citizens' welfare], whereas it is a habit of those who dominate to provide pleasures for themselves through the labors and hardships of others.  Isocrates.  On The Peace.  Speech 8.  Section 91.

Image: The Stag Hunt Mosaic from the House of the Abduction of Helen in Pella.

"One of the most remarkable mosaics of animals and people in the House of the Abduction of Helen is the Stag Hunt Mosaic, prominently signed by an artist named Gnosis. The blossoms, leaves, spiraling tendrils, and twisting, undulating stems that frame this scene are in a Pausian design. The coiling frame around it echoes the linear patterns formed by the figures of the hunters, the dog, and the struggling stag. The mosaicist has created an illusion of solid figures through modeling, mimicking the play of light on three-dimensional surfaces by highlights and shading. Through this technique, the artist is able to reveal a sense of movement with the figures, creating a sense of illusion in the flat space. This is done by the deliberate use of the different color pebbles, creating that dynamism of shadow. Another expert approach to this illusion and the interpretation of action is the skill of foreshortening with the dog’s front legs as it sprints into the scene to attack the stag."

Although it is unclear at first glance, it is argued that the figure on the right is actually Alexander the Great, by virtue of the upswept hair off his forehead, as well as its central parting, dating it to the late 4th century. And although its credibility is limited, the taller figure is thought to be the god Hephaistos, due to his attribution of the double-headed axe, which the figure rears up to swing. Because there is no identification of the figures by the artist, perhaps, according to Chugg, he is one of Alexander’s secretive and scandalous lovers.

Regardless of the mosaic’s subject, the artistic skill in terms of shading and the illusion of shadow is exquisite and should be noted. In comparison to past mosaics, this work is all the more impressive because it was not made with uniformly cut marble in different colors, but with a carefully selected assortment of natural pebbles. The movement of the figures is clear against the dark background, and their energy is definitely present as they hunt the surprised stag, succeeding in their mission of victory. The emotion of this scene makes it typical Hellenistic. The extreme violent movement of the nude figures and the intense drama of the hunt characterize this era’s unique stylizations. - Jordan Wolfe, Furman University

https://scholarexchange.furman.edu/art231/54/

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Nero: Hating those who denounce your mistakes

You are wont to hate not so much those who are responsible for your mistakes as those who undertake to denounce them.  Isocrates.  On The Peace.  Speech 8.  Section 80.

Image: The caldarium of the Villa of Poppaea in Oplontis near Naples, Italy with a panel painting depicting Hercules in the Garden of the Hesperides.  Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor AlMare.

Although most of us are familiar with the story that Nero kicked Poppaea to death in a fit of rage (according to Suetonius), The ancient sources actually are not in agreement on that subject. Tacitus claims Nero's kick was a "casual outburst,"  Cassius Dio claims Nero leapt upon her belly, but admitted that he did not know if it was intentional or accidental, and other writers say Nero poisoned her.  Modern scholars, however, think Poppaea may have died due to fatal complications of miscarriage or stillbirth and the stories about Nero's involvement were just attempts to blacken his reputation further and, as often occurred, provide evidence to justify his forced suicide.

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Plato's neighbors

You will not easily discover more trustworthy characters than these your neighbors, and I counsel you to hold fast to these men by every righteous means, and regard this as a duty of no secondary importance. Plato.  Letter 6.323a

Image: Orestes and Pylades (San Ildefonso Group - sometimes referred to as Castor and Pollux), detail, 10 CE, Museo del Prado, Madrid, Spain. 

"The San Ildefonso Group was discovered in Rome in 1623 and arrived at the palace of La Granja de San Ildefonso one hundred years later. This work shows Orestes and Pylades, legendary models of friendship, offering a sacrifice after having returned to Tauris. This act purified Orestes, freeing him from his divine punishment. Other authors identified these statues as the brothers Castor and Pollux. In modern times, the Roman portrait of Antinuous was added to the left torso. A creation of Augustan classicism, this group of sculptures is a superb reflection of that period’s eclecticism. The earliest reference to this group dates from 1623 at the Villa Ludovisi in Rome, where it belonged to Cardinal Massimi. Following the Cardinal’s death, the piece became a part of the collections of Christine of Sweden. It then entered the collection of the first Bourbon king of Spain, Felipe V (1683-1746)." - Museo Del Prado.

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