"Beginning with Ptolemy I Soter, the Ptolemaic dynasty reigned from 305 BCE to 30 BCE, when the last Ptolemaic ruler, Kleopatra VII, committed suicide, and Octavian made Egypt a province of Rome. In their capital at Alexandria and in historically prominent Egyptian cities and sanctuaries, the Ptolemies continued the practices of their pharaonic predecessors in an attempt to integrate themselves into Egyptian society and their images into Egypt’s visual culture," explains Yale University's Susan B. Matheson. "They employed architecture and sculpture to help establish their rightful place as rulers and to present themselves as a dynasty like those that came before. This impressive display of public art featured primarily Egyptian iconography and style. Egyptian dress and traditional royal and divine attributes were typical, and inscriptions were generally in the native hieroglyphic script."
Matheson points out that Ptolemaic dynastic portraits ranged from those appearing as purely Greek, to those styled as purely Egyptian with some portraits rendered as a blend of both elements.
"It is likely that the sculptors commissioned to carve them determined the material, iconography, and style based on the wishes of their clients and the ultimate function of the portrait, Matheson notes, "Although there may have been official portrait types that emanated from Alexandria, as was later true of imperial portrait types disseminated from Rome, the king would find it expedient to have his image correspond to the preferences of local priests and officials."
Way back in 1925, classical archaeologist A. W. Lawrence in his article "Greek Sculpture in Ptolemaic Egypt" observes "It has been said that an Alexandrian School existed with ideals markedly different from those of the rest of the Hellenistic world." Unfortunately, he does not really seem to recognize a blending of styles of the Egyptian with the Greek. He describes the works produced in Egypt as a poorly executed impressionist technique in which less than able local sculptors "neglect detail in their modelling and trust to the soft finish to conceal the fact that they had put no more work than they could help into the different parts of the face but merely made it up of various blank planes."
Egyptian sculptures from the Ptolemaic period often featured details added separately in stucco. Sometimes the entire head was imported from Greece or Asia Minor with the hair or hair extensions, beards, diadems, veils, etc. added in stucco once the work arrived in Egypt. Some scholars point to this practice as common then because marble had to be imported and was therefore quite expensive.
Lawrence dismisses this observation as well.
"This habit of finishing things in stucco has been put down to a desire to economize in marble, which is not found in Lower Egypt and so was naturally expensive there. But in most cases, the quantity saved is infinitesimal, and the practice was employed in other countries where marble was abundant," Lawrence says. "It seems therefore to have been a device to save labour rather than material."
I doubt to some extent the conservation of materials as a reason for the use of stucco as well. But, although some portrait heads seemed to have been prepared for stucco additions only on the top part of the head, others, like the portrait of Ptolemy I Soter appear to have used marble only for the face while the entire back of the head is assumed to have been completed in stucco. This would appear to support the economy of materials theory.
Classicist Flavia Vanni at the University of Birmingham, in her research for her PhD thesis, "Byzantine Stucco Decoration: Cultural and Economic Implications Across the Mediterranean World, 850-1453," points out that, from a shipping perspective, big bulky pieces of marble were not divisible cargo either, so incurred more cost because of the amount of space they consumed in a cargo hold.
I also can't fully embrace the labor saving aspect of the practice either, as Lawrence proposes, at least in respect to the original production. The labor expended in crafting an ornate hair style or diadem even in stucco surely would have been roughly equivalent to carving the remainder of the marble head. Lawrence's criticisms of style and workmanship seem to cast aspersions on the skill and dedication of Egyptian sculptors in the Ptolemaic Period. Due to the date of the article (1925) I can't help but suspect that Lawrence may have allowed his British colonial perceptions of Egyptians at the tiime to bias his observations, even if he was the brother of T.E. Lawrence (of Arabia).
So if the stucco additions were not the result of economy, either of materials or labor, why was this practice employed for a number of Ptolemaic dynastic portraits? Thinking of the turbulent history of this family and the frequent fratricides and changes in succession, I wondered if stucco was used on the top or back of the head and beards so changes in dynastic succession could be more easily depicted without recarving much of an expensive marble portrait.
I've seen a number of Roman portraits where one emperor's portrait was recarved into a subsequent emperor. Recarving a portrait of Nero is always a challenge because sculptors often cannot disguise telltale remnants of his sideburns and longer than normal hairstyle. If the hair and sideburns had been rendered in stucco, a hairstyle alteration could have been relatively easy to remove and replace. The Ptolemies, following traditional Egyptian style, also attempted to have their portraits resemble, to some extent, their predecessors as a visual reference to the enduring nature of their dynasty, so recarving would be relatively minimal if a change in succession occurred.
However, I don't know of many monarchs modest enough that would commission artwork of themselves with thoughts as to its subsequent recarving by their successors.
Of course the use of stucco could have been a further attempt to blend Egyptian and Greek traditions. The use of lime and gypsum plasters in Egypt date back to the 3rd millenium BCE. The famous bust of Nefertiti dating to 1345 BCE is an exquisite example of stucco's extensive use in the production of sculpture "in the round" in ancient Egypt.
Lawrence does mention portraits outside of Egypt using a combination of marble and stucco in areas with abundant sources of marble. I found one on Christies auction site. It is tentatively identified as the Seleucid King Demetrios III Eucaerus (well-timed), on the basis of comparison to his coin portraits.
"Both portraits share the prominent hooked nose and a beard. Many late Seleucid portraits are indebted in style to contemporary Ptolemaic imagery, since they were able to maintain their hold over their territories only through Ptolemaic support. Demetrios III was the son of Antiochos VIII Grypos (Hook-nose). He was able to recover part of his father's territories in 95 B.C. with the help of Ptolemy IX Lathyrus. He was eventually defeated by the Parthian king Mithridates II, who kept him in confinement until his death in 88 B.C.E." - Christies
Such emulation of Ptolemaic dynastic sculpture may point to recognition of the use of stucco as a distinctive artistic style.
What do you think?
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| Portrait head of a late Ptolemaic ruler possibly Ptolemy IX, Hellenistic Period, Late 2nd - early 1st century BCE, marble from Paros with stucco added in Egypt, now in the collections of the Museum of Fine Arts Boston, image courtesy of the museum. "With its large eyes, long face and aquiline nose, this is a powerful and unforgettable image of a semi-divine king. It continues, while altering and exaggerating, the tradition of late third century Ptolemaic portraiture. The head was converted from a slightly earlier, beardless image. It was cut down at the sides of the neck, and a beard and new hairline were created with stucco. Egyptian sculptures from the Ptolemaic period often featured details added separately in stucco. Sometimes the entire head was imported from Greece or Asia Minor with the hair or hair extensions, beards, diadems, veils, etc. added in stucco once the work arrived in Egypt. Some scholars point to this practice as common then because marble had to be imported and was therefore not readily available. "The three times life-sized head, found at Memphis in what appears to have been a temple or shrine of the Hellenistic and Roman periods, was carved in Greek marble, with hair, the tip of the nose, and beard finished in stucco. Reddish ground color remains in the pupils of the eyes and on the lips. There are traces of stucco on the neck and possible touches of gold on the stucco in the hair. The marble surface below the beard was smoothed and polished, then scarred by diagonal incisions to hold the stucco, suggesting the portrait did not originally have a beard. The complete statue must have been about twelve feet high if seated, and well over fifteen feet if standing. The head comprises only a marble mask and neck, the area behind being hollowed out." Most scholars agree that the head bears closest resemblance to Ptolemy IX (reigned 116–107 and 88–80)." - Museum of Fine Arts Boston. |
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| Extensively restored marble portrait head of Ptolemy I Soter, 4th - 3rd century BCE, only face is original, probably the entire skull was completed in stucco, courtesy of The Louvre. |
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| Arsinoe III portrait with missing stucco hair at the Yale University Art Gallery. By all accounts, Arsinoe III Philopater (ca. 245–204 BCE) was a remarkable woman. A highly educated member of the Ptolemaic dynasty, she reigned as Queen of Egypt after marrying her brother, Ptolemy IV, in 221/220 BCE, until she was murdered in 204 BCE in response to her role as regent for her 6-year-old son, Ptolemy V. The Greek historian Polybius reports that Arsinoe accompanied her husband into battle at Raphia in 217, an event also recorded in the ancient text, 3 Maccabees. According to the poet and mathematician Eratosthenes, the queen condemned her husband’s infamous worldly excesses, providing a counterweight to the stereotypical decadence of the Ptolemies. |
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| Ptolemy III Evergeta or Ptolemy IV Philopator or Ptolemy VI Philometor marble portrait head that would have had additional above the hair and across the back of the skull, 4th - 3rd century BCE, courtesy of The Louvre |
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| Marble portrait head of Ptolemy XII Aulete with traces of stucco on the back of the skull, 2nd half of 1st century BCE to 1st century CE, courtesy of The Louvre |
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| Head of Arsinoe II at The Louvre in Paris, 250-200 BCE, missing hair and possibly headdress that would have been finished in stucco. |
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| Marble head, portrait of the queen Arsinoe II as Aphrodite. The hair is incomplete because it was made in stucco following the Alexandrian custom, due to the rarity of Greek marble in the capital of Hellenistic Egypt. Ptolemaic period. Arsinoe II was deified in the guise of Aphrodite after her death in 270 BCE, courtesy of Ekinium Gallery |
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| Marble head, portrait of the queen Arsinoe II as Aphrodite. The hair is incomplete because it was made in stucco following the Alexandrian custom, due to the rarity of Greek marble in the capital of Hellenistic Egypt. Ptolemaic period. Arsinoe II was deified in the guise of Aphrodite after her death in 270 BCE, courtesy of Ekinium Gallery |
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| Portrait head of a Ptolemic queen with missing stucco headdress, 270-250 BCE, now in the collections of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. "This monumental head gives an impression of sovereign calm and power, even though the veil that once covered the top and back of the head is now missing. Although the features are cast in a thoroughly classical style typical of the late fourth century B.C., the face is stamped with enough individuality to identify it as a portrait. In all probability, it represents a member of the Ptolemaic dynasty, that succession of Macedonian Greeks who ruled Egypt from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. until the annexation of Egypt by Rome and the suicide of Cleopatra VII in 30 B.C. Most recently, the head has been identified as Arsinoe II, who ruled together with her brother, Ptolemy II, from 278 B.C. until her death in 270 B.C. Not only was the queen part of a dynastic ruler cult during her life, she was also transformed into an independent deity by her brother after her death. She was worshiped as an Egyptian goddess in association with Isis and also separately as a Greek goddess, with her own sanctuaries and festivals. This strongly idealized head, which resembles classical images of Hera and Demeter, was probably associated with the latter cult." |
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| Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II with unfinished head, mid to late 2nd century BCE at the Yale University Art Gallery |
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| Marble sculpture of Ptolemy of Mauretania from Aquae Calidae, 10-5 BCE according to Landwehr, 5-15 CE according to Fittschen - no stucco additions, courtesy of The Louvre. The use of stucco additions seems to disappear with the arrival of the Romans. |
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| A GREEK MARBLE PORTRAIT OF A MAN LATE HELLENISTIC PERIOD, CIRCA 1ST CENTURY B.C.E. Turned slightly to his right, the short hair coarsely fashioned and completed in stucco, some stucco locks preserved above the forehead, his slender face with bulging, knitted brows and deep-set unarticulated eyes preserving extensive original pigment, including the brows and lashes, the distinctive hooked nose with a humped bridge and a drooping tip, the thin lips pressed together below the trimmed mustache, the beard shaped and roughly picked to be completed in stucco, courtesy of Christies |
